bd bd chal ΨΚ ΕΣΕΣῪΦ ἐς ΨΥΝῚ ΚΕΎΨΨΨΨΨΕΡ νον FF oe 


we ὑφ δοὺς din nd Σὰ 

rf ot ἢ ΣῊΜ ψεδεψε σας 06 ates eo mn rp reopen εὐ Tram rem ψε ψε ψόφῳ, ert en euies τι 

ἘΠ IMR Au ast τε ana Βα τ πε τ a τ τε aM RCT 
ageycrs yt sett tcrttt ἐφ᾿ Mirror ΒΗ ΗΜΗΙ ἐν re +9 sererearret Ἶ ΝΗ pea 
SBOE cet ASR νήσηρεν τη acme zs 
Beare ec rete cane ee eect nee 

ὧς 
Labs 


SSR. Stee +4 i Rebtetatanitenetetotatecetaeess tata iets : f ᾿ Heh iP Η 


penedd ΦΡΦΉΦΟΙΝ Γυφφρφ δι bebenes 
neve ba baeeee beb-ibe > ΜῈ 


ae! 


ΟΣ 


i" 
eee Ἢ 
ὅ “γῶν " μὲ ΣΡ ΜΉΉΣΗ if τὸν Fo esd ps up eee on ater ddatereaeatisitiit Σ 
See |G tana ese Nee ee 
at se Ὁ rere ti gatas 
τελονν τε τε γηῤρτ Ἢ a sintes ἐτοτς byes 
᾿ ΔΩ 


νὸν έτη γῆσῃυ age us 
ot te Pathasate : ἩΠΕΞΉΝΗΝΝ ἬΤΟΝ eer neste 
: USUI aca tisk j : : ΠῚ 4 i oat ahah 


tomer i 
Stn, Spee cca Soa a TS 
a, Ol oe ως Ἢ ae fm icbomer tbat tt ital deals 
Ἐ- oy. titeltotiata tata) pty ecrtrorerr tit 
A wnt ἘΞΕΐ ge) eee ττσιτα seein 
Gor i ieee thts tetet st ca erase Sotto Rese iogre Sitircrerenes τ κατε τεσ ririninh ὅς ΠΗ 
Ἔξ etm hell τη το ee 
ema eer presteesecoetaseot rrrtcaremarn ae eatin? seid Ή ΤΕ Ν τ aye ἐν vod wo ag 3her 
ν᾿ TUS SS ΠΡ χε ΔΤ Σὸν τανγ γγηούνΣ so τ nese ἘΣ Στὴν Beat 
ἣ tei ttt Rutbepses ΤΣ ΤΉ ΉΤΟ ΤῸ baile 
ies eos i Brenaionrinen a anon 
ψ 


μέ ψε το θα ὸ νφυνφε ve Neyer ΦῈ φυφπι 


ii 


Ye phen ed os er eed 


; 

inet 

torte ratreererty 
eesane nie ds: ὁ, 


nen soit ae 
᾿ ἮΝ ᾿ 5 
ἀφ τὴν ἧι ot aaa ξεν ge 
ammilenneaaiiat ΦΉΜΗ 
Δ ὰ κὠτ parsers tieestin 


- 244893 
inet 


ΠΝ 
γα φἘΦ 15." ὰ εὐ νιόν mean > 


iis 
τι Νδδδον 


Υ hinged τ 
ΠΣ Ha aye Taye 


ne 


eet 2 ohh 
Deb ramenbee it at dete, 
reseed i 144 


cet Η 


μἀφλφδολφονφυτἠεντψ 


i 

penevests ts porns nent sy ay ee 

Seetenereleter reed ah 
aatinee 


meee 


sua 
era 


manasacnse 


a 


“+ oe 
shaleeseseenes 


7 
Biteceetecet th 


Lettes ith reueeatiena 


iit 


ἐξ | 


ΠῚ 


“ΕΣ ΥΜΗ ΠΡ ΜΗΝ 
ΠΤ veusts we gs ua συ οφε ρον bons Merere tit ΕἸ {νι {τ} ἦν 
ἀφανφενν 4 hae rt ee ἢ 
" Η, τὸ od HOt by re at oF 
hee 


ve 
ἀνὰ,» 


ἢ se pare oe 
eit 
’ ΟΣ 
ἩΗΜΉΒΕΤΗΤΗΗ 


Mit ον 
abe) 
᾿ ou ! ch bans nets 
ἐν atte MH ΡΉΜῊΝ τ ; weorer estes 

shebeksd Heese 


ery hese. 


i lett Disetesessts M 


phenpagheyesasecgonses 


it 


7" y 


brag AY ee 


Δ 


With 


a 


TWENTIETH CENTURY TEXT-BOOKS 


iano ie A ioe Cor LON 


EDITED BY 
JOHN HENRY WRIGHT, HARVARD UNIVERSITY 
BERNADOTTE PERRIN, YALE UNIVERSITY 


ANDREW FLEMING WEST, PRINCETON UNIVERSITY 


bat Me τ 
Ν ἸΠΠῸΝ 


TWENTIETH CENTURY TEXT-BOOKS 


A SCHOOL GRAMMAR OF 
Pipi GREEK 


BY 
THOMAS DWIGHT GOODELL 


PROFESSOR OF GREEK IN YALE UNIVERSITY 


| NEW YORK 
Ὁ. APPLETON AND COMPANY 
1907 


BOSTON COLLEGE -LIBRARY 
CHESTNUT HILL, MASS. 


* 


CoPYRIGHT, 1902 — 
By ἢ. APPLETON AND COMPANY 
Published August, 1902 
132969 
= tl Via) ἢ 
᾿ ᾿ F ‘ ᾿ δ᾽ J 
+ ‘ By ils S| ets * 


TO 


MY FORMER PUPILS IN THE 
HARTFORD PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL 
AND IN YALE COLLEGE 
1881-1902 


WHOSE DIFFICULTIES IN LEARNING GREEK 
HAVE BEEN CONSTANTLY BEFORE ME 
IN THIS ENDEAVOR TO LIGHTEN THE TASK 
OF THEIR SUCCESSORS 


PREFACE 


Tue invitation to prepare a new Greek Grammar would 
not have been accepted had 1 not believed that the time has 
come for considerable changes in the presentation of the sub- 
ject to young pupils. Greek studies are still holding their 
own in this country, because of their intrinsic value in a 
liberal education. But in order to preserve for them their 
due place, great improvement must be made in teaching the 
language, so that a reasonable amount of effort will advance 
a serious student farther than it ordinarily does at present. 
And such improvement is possible. Though nothing can 
make Greek really easy, it need not be so difficult as it has 
been made. This volume is a sincere endeavor—how far 
successful only the test of use will show—to aid in meeting 
the legitimate demand for better results from the time and 
labor expended. 

As the first change required, I have sought to simplify 
grammatical statements to the utmost. Some technical terms 
consecrated by long tradition have been thrown overboard ; 
so far as possible terms have been used that are really 
descriptive and will appear so to beginners. Nearly all 
changes in terminology are of this sort; only one or two 
seemed necessary in the other direction. Thus the potential 
optative disappears, because experience has shown that the 
term misleads nearly all pupils and some teachers; the hypo- 


thetical optative and indicative are made to support each 
vii 


Vili GREEK GRAMMAR 


other, and students who have begun geometry should find 
the terms hypothetical and hypothesis mutually explanatory. 
The phrase formative vowel, for variable vowel, is more dis- 
tinctly descriptive than the old, and the symbol o:e, which is 
often employed in scientific works, is both more legible and 
more readily extended to analogous cases than the symbol 
introduced to our schools by the Hadley-Allen Grammar. 
Secondly, I have sought to simplify by omission, so far as 
that could be done safely with due regard to later progress. 
It is assumed that those who begin Greek have had at least a 
year of Latin; accordingly, whatever is so much like Latin 
or English as to cause no difficulty is omitted or barely men- 
tioned. Only Attic Greek is included; some confusion is 
avoided by keeping Epic or other non-Attic forms out of sight 
until they are needed—that is, until one begins to read 
Homer, Herodotos, and the lyric poets. And of Attic Greek 
only those forms are included that are found in the works 
commonly read in American schools and colleges up to the 
end of sophomore year, or are quite regular. Rarer forms, 
and in syntax rarer constructions, such as are naturally 
explained in lexicon or notes, are also generally omitted. 
Meantime, some things that other grammars pass over lightly 
are here given more prominence, because they are things that 
freshmen need to know and commonly do not know. Yet 
by this twofold process of simplification the body of the 
grammar is brought within three hundred. pages, in spite of 
large type and open printing and the greater space given t 
examples. : 
But it seemed to me a change equally needed was a shift 
in the point of view as regards syntax. In learning the 
inflection and vocabulary of any language we first learn the 
foreign forms and their general meaning; afterward—as 
soon as may be, but as the second step, not the first—by 
turning English expressions into the foreign idiom we study 


PREFACE ~ ix 


from another standpoint the functions of the forms. (We 
are not considering the mental process of young children 
learning the language of people around them, but that of 
those who already think in one language and are learning 
another.) The second step is far more difficult than the first. 
The facts of a language may look very different seen from 
these two sides. But in learning Greek syntax our pupils 
have been too often required to take both steps at once. 
That is, syntactical phenomena are classified by function, and 
then our grammatical statements try to combine both points 
of view. This is less true as regards the syntax of cases. 
There it has been usual to start with form and describe the 
function ; and though rules mix the two points of view some- 
what—as when we teach that cause, manner, and means are 
expressed by the dative—still no great harm is done. Nearly 
the same may be said of modes and tenses in simple sen- 
tences ; but with subordinate clauses, the most difficult chap- 
ter of all syntax, the matter becomes serious. The current 
formulas are based on a classification by function, as clauses 
of purpose, condition, and so on, and throw into one func- 
tional category several distinct forms, while the student finds 
before him on the Greek*page one syntactical form at a 
time, which he has to interpret. The endeavor to interpret 
the clauses before him by such rules compels him to shift 
constantly from one point of view to the other. The natural 
result is a confusion of mind that greatly hinders progress 
in understanding Greek. In this grammar I have sought to 
carry through consistently the prineiple of classifying by 
form. This has caused a complete recasting of the syntax of 
subordinate clauses. Some may at first find the changes here 
made somewhat disconcerting ; no one recognizes more fully 
than I the difficulty of the task attempted. But being con- 
vinced that the reform was imperatively required, I could 
do nothing less than attack the problem. After my solu- 


Χ GREEK GRAMMAR 


tion was worked out it was submitted to several experienced 
teachers, who warmly approved it. Subordinate clauses are 
classified first by the introductory word, next by the mode 
and tense of the verb; the description of each form is meant 
to enable the student to interpret the Greek before him; 
directions for translating English into Greek are left to the 
book on composition and to the teacher. The new system is 
not only better scientifically, it is more concrete and intel- 
ligible to beginners. But the system is really not new, since 
it is the one which lexicons follow as a matter of course, and 
this agreement between grammar and lexicon is a farther 
advantage. 

In the spelling of Greek names the stricter form of trans- 
literation is followed, except with names like Cyrus, which 
are also English baptismal names, or those like Athens, which 
have long ago received an English termination. Two reasons 
led me to continue here my practice of twenty-five years. 
First, though many leading Hellenists in England and Amer- 
ica prefer the Latin spelling as being the traditional one, I 
think the other is likely to prevail in the end. No tendency 
of classical studies throughout the last century was more 
marked than the growing desire to approach Hellenic life and 
thought directly, and remove every distorting medium both 
in study and in the presentation of results. Archeeology has 
been one powerful influence in that direction. Accordingly 
all our leading museums employ the direct method of trans- 
literation ; and museums are perhaps the greatest populariz- 
ing agency for Greek studies. It is not pedantry, but good 
sense, to help on this tendency and shorten the period of 
transition. Secondly, the stricter transliteration is simpler ; 
to expect pupils to Latinize the names adds an unnecessary 
difficulty. But the introductory book in preparation to accom- 
pany the grammar will give both forms and explgin both 
methods of transliteration. 


PREFACE | x] 


In writing the volume it was impossible to escape, had I 
wished to, the influence of Hadley’s Grammar, which has been 
familiar to me from boyhood in the original form and since 
1884 as revised by the late F. D. Allen. Nearly the same may 
be said of Professor Goodwin’s Grammar and of his Greek 
Moods and Tenses, in their successive editions. My obliga- 
tions to these works are very great, and not least in those 
chapters where I have departed most widely from them. 
He would be an ungrateful pupil who should forget his debt 
to his masters, merely because he has by their aid finally 
learned to look with independent judgment on some portion 
of their doctrine. Also, like all American Hellenists, I have 
learned much, and am still learning, from Professor Gilder- 
sleeve, though I suspect he will think I ought to have learned 
more. To such a thought on his part my first plea in defense 
would be the elementary character of this grammar. For 
young students a simple, clear, and brief statement is essen- 
tial. (As an instance where the need of brevity has forced a 
form of wording which is not true literally though true in 
spirit, section 562 may be referred to. Some infinitives are 
by origin locatives in form; but in meaning no locative sense 
can be traced, so that for the purposes of syntax the assertion 
that all are originally for datives is not misleading.) Several 
German grammars have also been of much service, especially 
those of Kaegi and of Koch, and the two volumes of Kiihner- 
Blass. 

Many friends have aided me directly at various stages of 
my task, whom I wish to thank especially. Professor Wright, 
of Harvard University, has read critically all the proofs ; 
Mr. Morrison, of the Hartford High School, has freely placed 
at my service his unusual skill in teaching; and my colleagues, 
Professors Morris, Perrin, and Oertel, have been very kind 
and helpful, saving me from many errors and furnishing 
many valuable suggestions. Frequent discussion of the prin- 


ΧΙ] GREEK GRAMMAR 


ciples of syntax with Professor Morris has greatly influenced 
the development of my views, and I am sure has much im- 
proved the exposition in this volume; without the constant 
aid of Professor Oertel I might often have gone astray in 
places where even the simplest statements need to be made 
in the light of a wide knowledge of morphology and of lin- 
guistic science. Others too numerous to name separately 
have aided me with criticisms and suggestions at many points, 
and my wife has in several ways contributed so much that 
the fact calls for public acknowledgment. 

Finally, it is probable that some infelicities, and perhaps 
worse, will be revealed by class-room experience. I shall be 
grateful for all corrections and suggestions for improvemnent ; 
and if the book is found useful enough to come to a second 
edition, I shall hope to make it fill its place better. 


T. D. G. 
June, 1902. 


CONTENTS 


INTRODUCTION , ; : : : ; 


I. SouNDS AND WRITING: 
Alphabet 
Accent 
Sound Changes 
Vowels 
Consonants ‘ ; ‘ : : ; 


11. Worps: 


A. Nouns AND ADJECTIVES | 
1, O-Declension: Nouns 
II. A-Declension : Nouns 
Feminines: First Group 
Feminines: Second Group 
Masculines . : : 
III. Adjectives of the Vowel Declension 
IV. Contracted Vowel Stems 
o-Declension ; - 
V. Consonant Declension : Nouns 
Liquid Stems in -λ, -ν, -p 
Stems in -ep ; 
Guttural Stems in -κ, -Ύ 


Labial and Dental Stems in -z, 10 -τ 


Dental Stems in -7, -5,-@ . 
Neuter Stems in ττ 
Masculine Stems in -yr 


Stems in -eo, -ασ΄. : é : 
Stems in -: and -v i : ε 
Stems ἴῃ τυ, -ῦ. : 2 ‘ 
- Stems in -ev, -αὖ, του. 3 
Stems in -w and -o ; : , 


Irregular Nouns . . . . 


ΧΙ 


PAGE 


cS οι 


C2 Ὁ w ev 
«2 


Φ 9 
μι 


88 


{ 
Ϊ 


Xiv GREEK GRAMMAR 


VI. Consonant Declension: Adjectives, : 
Adjectives of Two Endings 
Comparatives in τῶν, 

Stems in -εσ . . 
Adjectives of Three βρά Stents in -av 
Stems in -v 
Stems in -avr 
Adjective Stems in -evr 
Participial Stems in -evr . 
Stems in -ovt 
Participial Stems in -or (Perfects) 
VII. Comparison of Adjectives 
VIIT. Numeral Adjectives 
B. Pronouns . : . 
Personal Pronouns : : : : 
Demonstrative Pronouns 
Relative Pronouns. : 
Interrogative and Indefinite Bron 
Correlative Pronouns 


C, ADVERBS 
Correlative Auer 
D. VERBS 
A. Verbs of Ἧ Ω- ἀρ το 


I. Vowel Verbs, not contracting 
The Present System : 
The Aorist System. : , 
The Perfect Active System 
Perfect Middle System 
The Passive System: Θη- fiacsten 


II. Vowel Verbs, Contracting in the Present 
III. Liquid Verbs . 

IV. Mute Verbs 

B. Verbs of the Mi-Conjugation 
I. Verbs in -νῦμι. ‘ : 

Il, Verbs in -ημι, with Stems in -a:y- . 

ITI. δίδωμι, Τίθημι, “Ine . 

IV. Irregular and Defective Μι- Parte? 


Middle and Passive Forms with Peculiar Meanina 


PAGE 


CONTENTS XV 


PAGE 

E. Worp-ForMaTIoN. : : A ‘ : : . 141 
I. Derivation . : : : ] : 5 ; 2 oe at 
Verbals . : ῤ : ; : : ἧ : . 142 

Verbal Nouns ὃ : : 5 : : : . 142 

Verbal Adjectives : ; : : : : . 145 


Denominatives. : . : - : . - . 148 
Denominative Verbs. : ς , : : . 148 
Denominative Adjectives. 5 : : : . 152 
Denominative Nouns . : ° : : . . 154 

II. Composition . al Bue gees OF SoA λυ, τον το 88 

Compound Verbs. ‘ ὃ - ° . . 159 

Compound Nouns and τ ee : . . 160 


III. Synrax: 


I. Simple Sentences . . : : : . . : τ 109 
Indicative Sentences. : : : : ; . 108 
Subjunctive Sentences . ‘ : : ς : “ 17} 
Optative Sentences : - : : ς : . 180 
Imperative Sentences. : F : : : . 183 
Negative Sentences : : ᾿ ; . 184 
Undeveloped and espe Bentences : : . 186 

Verbs: Agreement and Voice . : : : : . 188 
Nouns: The Cases. ; : " ὃ : : « 191 
The Nominative . ὃ , : : ‘ . 102 
The Genitive : : : : : +) 192 


The Dative . : : : ; ς ΐ ΒΘ. 
The Accusative . - s : ᾿ : . 209 
Adjectives . : - 5 : : : . 215 


Special Idioms of Becioation : : : : : . 910 
The Article d : ; ; : : - - Ὁ 218 


Pronouns . : : ; : . . ᾿ ° « eae 
Infinitives . ; : ’ : ‘ . ° os > R24 
Participles . : ; ᾿ : . ° ‘ . 236 
Verbal Adjectives in "TEOS ; : : : ‘ . 246 
Prepositions : : : ; . . : : . 247 
ΤΠ, Compound Sentences . ‘ - . . τον τ . 248 


Parataxis and Hypotaxis . ; - : : ; . 200 
III. Complex Sentences ; : Ae Τὶ ° τ oa) 00 
Μή Clauses . Ἰ 5 ; P ὲ : ; . 251 
“Os and Ὅστις Clauses : ; - é ὶ A .| oboe 
Other Relative Clauses. : R ὃ : ; . 258 


bat Ή: ων en ‘> 
. ; ‘ Me, ΤΉΝ Whe F 
XVi | GREEK GRAMMAR —s_— 


“Ori, Διότι and Οὕνεκα Clauses . νὸν 
Clauses with Ὅτε, Ὁπότε, Ἐπεί, Ἡνίκα, ‘Omnvir 
Clauses with Ἕως, Ἔστε, Μέχρι, ΓΑχρι 


Ὡς Clauses . ; 
“Orws Clauses . 
“Ὥστε Clauses. 
“Iva Clauses 5 
πρίν Clauses. 
Ei Clauses . : 


Ei with the Indicative 
’Eay with the Subjunctive. . . . 


Ei with the Optative 


Other Uses of Εἰ 
Indireet Discourse 


Particles . 5 
Word-Order : 


ABBREVIATIONS “90> -- 
WORE LTS ον Ἀ ΟΊ τὸ 
GREEK INDEX ; : 
ENGLISH INDEX . ὃ 


. 


.Ψ . . 
. ee ° 
. ha” . 
. Φ ae 
. . . 
. Ὁ. . ; 
. . . 


Γ . °° 
. . . 
. . . 
. . . 
. . . Ἀν 
ἕ 
. . . Ν 
. . ery 
ty 
. . Ce 
. . oe Pat 
" 
: ; 
“ δ 
. : 
o wes 
- ᾿ 
» 
+ 
ae 
a 
3 
* 
᾿ 
Ν 
ὰ 
“us 
y τς 
Ls 
ἕν ᾿ 


GREHEK GRAMMAR 


INTRODUCTION 


GREEK is the language of the ancient people who called 
themselves Hellenes, and of their successors to the present 
day. Their center of abode was, and still is, the country we 
call Greece (Latin Graecia) and the neighboring islands; but 
from a very early period many Greeks were spread over parts 
of western Asia Minor, and were settled in colonies around 
other shores of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea and the 
waters that unite them. The sea has always been their main 
highway. In this language is preserved a large literature of 
various dates, including the earliest in Europe, and perhaps 
the greatest of the world. | 

Greek is one of the Indo-European family of languages, of 
which other members are Sanskrit, Old Persian, Keltic (in- 
cluding Welsh, Gaelic, Irish), Latin with its descendants 
(Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, French, Rumanian), the Teu- 
tonic branch (as German, Scandinavian, English), and the 
Slavic branch (as Russian, Lithuanian, Polish). All these 
are descended from one parent speech. 


Though really one when compared with other tongues, 
1 1 


2 GREEK GRAMMAR 


Greek was spoken and written differently by different branches 
of the people. Like all languages, too, it changed with 
time, and its history has been very long. So we have to 
distinguish different dialects or forms of Greek and differ- 
ent periods. | 

In the ancient period the many spoken dialects are mostly 
included under three general groups, not always easy to keep 
apart—the Aiolic, Doric, and Ionic, corresponding to divisions 
of the race. Important seats of the Aiolians were in north- 
western Asia Minor, Lesbos, Thessaly, and Boiotia (northern 
group); important seats of the Dorians were in Peloponnese, 
Crete, southern Asia Minor, Sicily, and southern Italy (south- 
ern group); of the Ionians, in western Asia Minor and Attica 
and certain islands between them (middle group). In the 
literature the dialects were somewhat mingled; but Sappho 
(600 8. c.) represents fairly the Aiolic; Pindar (470 8. c.) 
and Theokritos (270 B.c.) the Doric; Homer (before 800 
B. 6.) and Herodotos (440 8. c.) the Ionic. 

The Attic was a branch of Ionic. But the literature of 
Athens between 500 8. c. and 825 8, c. was so large, so 
varied, and so great, that its language is better known than 
any other dialect, and has especial importance for us. In it 
are written the tragedies of Aischylos, Sophokles, and Euripi- 
des, the comedies of Aristophanes, the histories of Thukydi- 
des and Xenophon, the speeches of Demosthenes and the 
other Attic orators, the philosophical works of Plato .and 
Aristotle. 


The superiority of Athens was so marked, in art and goy- 


INTRODUCTION 3 


‘ 


ernment as well as in letters, that its dialect became the com. 
mon language of the educated over all the Mediterranean 
world. The empire of Alexander and his successors, and 
later that of Rome, aided the spread of this language, and 
established new literary centers in Alexandria, Antioch, Per- 
gamon, Rhodes. Thus widely extended, largely among peo- 
ple not of Greek blood, and more or less changed by time 
and the use of foreigners, the Attic lost its national character 
in the cosmopolitan, and became the Common dialect (say from 
325 8. c. to 8325 a.p.). Polybios, Plutarch, Lucian, and the 
early Christian Fathers wrote in it; the New Testament is in 
a variety of it known as the Hellenistic. 

Under the Byzantine or Eastern Roman Empire (325 to 
1453 a. p.) this Common dialect, always changing slowly, is 
called Byzantine, with its center at the capital, Constanti- 
nople. By degrees it developed into the forms now in 
use by the Greeks, in Greece and the Greek islands, in 
Asia Minor, Constantinople, and other parts of Turkey-in- 
Europe. These forms are together known as Modern Greek, 
which has a large and interesting literature, especially in 
popular poetry. 

Unless one lives where Modern Greek is spoken, the study 
of the language is best begun with Attic Greek, for two rea- 
sons. Not only is it the best known of the old dialects and 
the least difficult; but farther, ancient Athens, by her litera- 
ture, her art, and her thought, has had a more profound and 
lasting influence on the world than all the rest of the Greek 


race together—more, indeed, than any other people; and the 


4 GREEK GRAMMAR 


prime object of learning Greek is to gain a first-hand ac- 
quaintance with a great force in civilization. , 
This book is intended to contain what one must know of 
grammar to read with intelligence the best Athenian litera- 
ture. One who can do that needs no other grammar for 
reading the Common, Hellenistic, and Byzantine Greek. 


I. SOUNDS AND WRITING 


1 Greek is written with twenty-four letters, namely : 


Form SouND NAME 


Q 


HEX eK<HoMUVUAOMAZSrAMOHNAPIOWD 
Ξ εν" 9. -ς 3) Ὁ οὐ -ἜΠ» 5 - osyvtan o< WA 


in far 


in go 


are o 3 


é in met 
dz 
German ὦ 
th in thin 
1 in peque 


m 
n 

ks, X in waa 

6 in obey 

p 

r 

5. in see 

t in to 

French wv, Germ. 7% 
ph in Philip 
German ch 

ps 

Ὁ in no 


ἄλφα 
βῆτα 
γάμμα 
δέλτα 

εἶ, @ ψῖλόν 
tira 

7Ta 

θῆτα 

ἰῶτα 
κάππα 
λάμβδα 
Bo. 

νῦ 

ξεῖ, ξὶ 

οὗ, ὃ μῖκρόν 
πεῖ, πὶ 

ῥῶ 

σίγμα 

ταῦ 

3, ὑ ψιλόν 
φεῖ, φὶ 


alpha 
beta 
gamma 
delta 
epsilon 
zeta 

eta 
theta 
lota 
kappa 
lambda 
mu 

nu 

xel, ΧΙ 
omicron 
pei, pl 
rho 
sigma 
tau 
upsilon 
phei, phi 
chei, chi 
psei, psi 
omega 


6 SOUNDS AND WRITING 


a. The form ς 15. used only at the end of a word: 
στάσις. 

Ὁ. E?, ξεῖ, οὖ, πεῖ, ὖ, φεῖ, χεῖ, Wet, ὦ are the classical Attic 
names for those letters; the other names for them, though 
now the common ones, came into use in the Middle Ages. 


2 Greek writing was phonetic—that 15, the letters were 
meant to represent the sounds, and each sound was 
written. 

a. But slight distinctions were disregarded, and an old 
spelling was sometimes kept after the sound had changed. 
Thus finally, in the-Byzantine period and since, the spelling of 
many words became unphonetic. 

3 The letter y before x, y, y, or € represents the sound 
of n in dink, or ng in sing (y nasal): ἀνάγκη necessity, 
φθόγγος tone, ἄγχι near, σφίγξ sphina. 

4 The vowels ε and o are always short—that is, were 
pronounced in less time than long vowels; ἡ and ὦ 
are always long—that is, were given more time in 
speaking ; a, 1, and v are sometimes long, sometimes 
short. In this book long a, i, v are thus marked ; 
short a, u, v are left unmarked. 


5 The diphthongs (δἔφθογγοι of two vowels) are 


αι ει οι αυ ευ ου 
αι Ne WL Nu ων υι 


a. Both vowels had their full sound, though united 
into one syllable. But by 400 8. c. εἰ and ov had be- 
come simple ; εἰ represented the close sound of French 
ὁ prolonged, or of German 66 in Seele, and ov the close 
sound of τ“ in rule or 00 in food. 


PRONUNCIATION fi 


b. Much later the sin a, ηι, w ceased to be pro- 
nounced, and is not now usually pronounced. Hence 
it is commonly written under the long vowel, and 
called 1 subscript: ἃ, ἡ, But with a capital this c 
is still written on the line (adscript): QIAHI = 
"dye = ody, and ΑἸΔΗΣ = Αιδης = ἄδης Hades. 


A breathing, not counted as a letter, is written with 
every initial vowel or diphthong; the rough breath. . 
ing ( ‘ ) represents the sound of 4 preceding the vowel, 
the smooth breathing (*) merely denotes the ab- 
sence of the 2 sound. The breathing is now writ- 
ten before a capital, but over a small letter. With a 
diphthong it is written over the second vowel: ‘Odds 
or ὁδός (hodos) road; Ἔξ or ἐξ (e@) out of ; Αὐτός or 
αὐτός (autos) self. 

But if the second vowel of the diphthong is c sub- 
script or adscript the breathing is put with the first : 
"0189 or ὠδή song. 

Also, initial p always takes the rough breathing: 
ῥήτωρ rhetor, orator. Double p within a word is by 
some written pp: μύῤῥα myrrh. 

a. In Attic initial v always has the rough breath- 

Ing: ὕπνος sleep. 
The pronunciation above described (1-6) is recommended as 
the nearest approach practicable, for our schools, to that of 
Athens about 400 B.c. To ε, 6, ¢, x are given the sounds 
now current in Greece, because the ancient sounds for these 
letters (27 a, 38 Ὁ) would increase the difficulties of pupils too 
much. Otherwise (except for « subscript) the sounds described 
are nearly those of the Athenians at the time named, 


8 


10 


8 SOUNDS AND WRITING 


Each vowel or diphthong, alone or with one or more 
consonants, makes a separate syllable. 

It is customary in writing to join a single consonant, or any 
group of consonants that may begin a Greek word, with the 
following vowel, if there be one, other combinations of con- 
sonants between vowels are divided : t-yi-e-a, κτῆ-μα, κέκτη-μαι, 
yi-yvi-oko, GA-dos, ὄτψο-μαι. But compound words are divided 
between the members: προσ-ά-πτω. 


ACCENT 


The accented syllable is marked with one of three 
signs, called accents. These are 


The acute accent (’): ὁδός. 
The circumflex accent (7): τῆς ὁδοῦ. 
The grave accent (*): τὴν ὁδόν. 

a. These indicate changes of pitch, or speech-tune, not of 
stress, in the ancient pronunciation. But now, both in Greece 
and elsewhere, all alike are pronounced as a simple increase of 
stress, like the accent in English. 

The accent mark is put over the vowel of the ac- 
cented syllable; with a diphthong it is put over the 
second vowel, unless that is « subscript or adscript. 
If the vowel has a breathing too, the acute or grave 
is put at the right of the breathing, the circumflex 


above the breathing: @ ψιλόν, αἵ, ᾧ. 


11 


With an initial capital the accent and breathing 
are placed before it : Ὅμηρος, Ὦ μέγα, “Ardys. 


The acute can stand only on one of the last three 
syllables ; the circumflex on one of the last two only, 
and only on a long vowel or diphthong. 


12 


18 


14 


15 


16 


17 


ACCENT 9 


a. If, then, a vowel has the circumflex accent, it must be 
long, and no separate mark of length is added. 


If the ultima is long, the acute can not stand on 
the antepenult, nor the circumflex on the penult. 
For exceptions see 93 b. 


In the penult an accented long vowel or diphthong 


takes the circumflex, unless that is forbidden by 12. 


But jinal a and o, though long, affect the accent 
of penult and antepenult as if short: ἄνθρωποι men, 
οἶκοι houses. 


8. Yet not in οἴκοι at home, nor in optative verb forms: 


παύοι. 


An acute on the ultima changes to the grave when 
closely followed by another word: ἀγαθὸς ἀνήρ a 
good man. 


a, This change is not made in tis, τί interrogative (217) 
nor before an enclitic (19); before a comma usage varies. 


A few common words have no accent of their own, but 
seem to rest on the word before or after. Those which 
thus look forward are called proclitics (προ-κλίνω lean for- 
ward); those which look backward are called enclitics (éy- 
κλίνω lean on). 


The proclitics are _ 
a. The article forms 6, 1, Ol, aL; 
b. The prepositions eis (és), ἐξ (ἐκὶ, ἐν ; 
ce. The conjunction El 
ἃ. “Qs in all uses, except as a demonstrative (thus) ; 
6, The negative adverb οὐ (οὐκ, οὐχ). 


18 


19 


20 


10 SOUNDS AND WRITING 


When no companion word follows, on which it 
would lean, a proclitic takes the acute: ἐγὼ μὲν ov 
not I, θεὸς ὥς as a god, κακῶν ἔξ out of evils. 

a. When 6, 7, of, or ai is a pronoun (205) many editors print 
it with an acute, which becomes grave by 15. 

The enclitics are 

a. The personal pronouns pov, μοι, με; Tov, σοι, 
σε; OV, Ol, ἑ; 

b. The indefinite pronoun τὰς in all forms (except 
ἄτταλ ; 

ce. ‘The indefinite adverbs που, ποθι, πῃ, ποι, ποθεν, 
ποτε, πω, πως. (The corresponding interrogatives are 
all accented ; see 236.) 

ἃ, The present indicative of εἰμι and φημι, except 
the second singular εἶ and φής. 

e. The particles ye, τε, τοι, περ, the inseparable -de. 

f. To these add some poetic forms and words, like μιν, vu, 
νυν, σφισι, σφι, ode. 

An enclitic takes an accent 

a. If emphatic: ἀλλὰ σὲ καλῶ it’s you I’m αἰ ἢ 

b. If it begins a clause (being then always em- 
phatic) : eno μέν he says, indeed. 

6. If the syllable next before is elided: ταῦτ᾽ ἐστί 
for ταῦτά ἐστι. 

ἃ, Also, a disyllabic enclitic takes the acute on the 
ultima, if the word before it has an acute on the pe- 
nult: λόγους τινάς. 

6, Ἔστι is written thus if it begins a clause, if it 
means exists or is possible, and if it follows οὐκ, μή, εἰ, 
ὡς, OF καί. 


21 


22 


29 


24 


ENCLITICS 11 


The word before an enclitic 

a. Keeps its own accent without change: ἐπεί τις 
διώκοι. 

b. Adds an acute on the ultima, if an acute stands 
on the antepenult or a circumflex on the penult: 
ἄνθρωποί τινες, οἶκός τις. 

ce. If it be a proclitic or enclitic, takes an acute: εἴ 
φησι, εἰ δέ τίς φησι. 

ἃ, The above rules apply also when a word and ἃ 
following enclitic are printed as one: οὗτινος, αἵτινες, 
ὥστε. In like manner εἴθε and ναΐχι from εἰ and vai. 


Punctuation The comma and period are used as in 
English. The colon is a point above the line (-), 
taking the place of our colon and semicolon. The 
mark of a direct question is (; ), like our semicolon. 


SOUND CHANGES 


Many changes of sound, and therefore of writing, 
occur in the formation and inflection of words. Va- 
rious causes combine in various ways to produce 
them ; to understand them one must observe the ac- 
tion of the mouth and throat in making speech sounds. 
The most important relations and changes of Greek 
sounds are briefly stated in the following sections 
(24-56). 


VOWELS 


Vowels are called open or close according as the mouth in 
speaking them is more open or less open. The most open 
vowel is a; in speaking it both tongue and lips are as much 


25 


26 


27 


12 SOUNDS AND WRITING 


as possible out of the way. Ini the ¢onguwe narrows the open- 
ing; its edges lie close to the teeth, the breath issuing along 
the middle. In ov the lips are rounded so as to narrow the 
opening, while the tongue is drawn back. In ὕ the opening 
is narrowed by the tongue as for τ and by the lips as for ov. 
Thus 7, 3, and ov are the closest vowel sounds. Between ἃ and 
i are y, «, and εἰ; between ἃ and ovare w and o. These rela- 
tions are suggested in the following table: 


Open 


Close (fongue) « t vB ov Close (lips) 


The short open vowels, a, «, o, often interchange, in root, stem, 
suffix, and endings. To indicate this variable sound, chang- 
ing from one to another in various forms, we use the symbols 


OVE, Al€, and arEe,o. 


In like manner the long open vowels, a, ἡ, ὦ, often inter- 
change. The pair a:y is especially frequent in declension, 
the pair 7: in conjugation. 

a, Less often one of the short open vowels interchanges 
with one of the long open vowels. ‘Instances are noted as 
they occur. 


Originally v represented the sound that was afterward written 
ov. The two close vowels, ὁ and original v, when followed by 
a vowel, became consonantal, like our consonants y and w re- 
spectively; the same change occurred in Latin, and often oc- 
curs in English. The earliest Greek had these two conso- 
nants; the latter survived in some dialects in the classical 
period, and was represented by Ff, called vau, or (from its 
shape) déi-yaypa digamma. But in Attic both had disappeared 
before 500 B.c. Thus arises the rule: : 

The close vowels « and v often disappear between two 
vowels. See 185, 


oe 


28 


29 


90 


VOWELS 13 


a. In observing sound changes the original diphthong εἰ 
{from ε -{- ει) must be distinguished from the digraph εἰ, which 
represents the simple sound ε (anciently = French 6) length- 
ened. So also the original diphthong ov (from o-+ original v) 
must be distinguished from the digraph ov, which represents 


the simple long sound of original Ὁ. ‘The rule in 27 applies to 


the true diphthongs, before they coalesced in pronunciation 
with the simple εἰ and ov. 


a. Long and short vowels are sometimes interchanged. The 
corresponding forms are commonly 
Short a, é, ly 0, V, 
Long y7ora, 7, isin ὦ; ve 
Tragic poets in lyric parts often use Doric ἃ where prose 
uses 7. 
b. But when vowel-lengthening results from the loss of one 
or more following consonants (and sometimes in other cases), 
ας €, oO become 


a, El, OU. 


Contraction.—T'wo syllables of the same word, not separated by 
a consonant (especially if the first ends in a short open vowel), 
are often united into one. The general rules observed in con- 
traction are: 

a. Two like vowels unite into their long, ce becoming εἰ and 
oo becoming ov (that is, the simple digraphs; cp. 27 a). 

b. A short vowel disappears in a following diphthong that 
begins with the same vowel or with the corresponding long. 

6. An o-sound (0, w, ov, ov) prevails over an ὧ- or e-sound 
(a, a, €, 7, εἰ), οε and eo becoming ov. 

ἃ, Of a- and e-sounds the one that precedes prevails. 

e. An open vowel and a close vowel make a diphthong. 


a.. The accent is unchanged by contraction, unless one of the 


syllables contracted was accented. 


b. If the accent was on the first of these, the contract syl- 
lable has the circumflex; if on the second, the acute. 


31 


32 


33 


34 


35 


36 


14 SOUNDS AND WRITING 


Hiatus is the pronunciation of an initial vowel immediately 
after a final vowel. This was avoided, especially in poetry, by 
care in choosing and arranging words and by v movable (41), 
and was evaded or softened by elision and crasis. 


Elision is dropping or slighting a final short vowel before 
an initial vowel. The slighted vowel is replaced in writing by 
an apostrophe (7): ἀλλ᾽ ἐγώ for ἀλλὰ ἐγώ... 

But between the parts of a compound word no apostrophe 
is written. | 

For consonant changes see 42. 

a. Verse inscriptions show that the ancients did not much 
care whether they wrote or omitted the elided vowel. 


a. Elision is most common in prepositions, conjunctions, and 
particles, as δέ, ἀλλά, ye, τε, ἐπί. ᾿ 

b. Never elided are a and o in monosyllables, ε in περί, ἄχρι, 
μέχρι, τί, τι, aNd ὅτι; also v. “Or must therefore be for dre. 


An accent on the elided vowel 

a. Is lost in prepositions and conjunctions:. per’ αὐτόν, ἀλλ᾽ 
ἐγώ φημι. 

Ὁ. On other words goes back to the penult: θαυμάστ᾽ ἔλεξας 
(θαυμαστά) a wondrous tale ! 


Crasis (κρᾶσις mingling) is like contraction (29) except that 
it occurs between separate words, which are then written as 
one. If the first syllable had the rough breathing, that is re- 
tained over the mingled syllable; otherwise the smooth breath- 
ing is written: ἐγῷμαι for ἐγὼ οἶμαι, ἅν for ἃ dv, ὠγαθέ for ὦ 
ἀγαθέ, raya for τὰ ἐμά. 

a. Final « of ἃ diphthong disappears in crasis: οὖν for οἱ ἐν 
or ὁ ἐν: 

b. Initial a absorbs the vowel or diphthong of a preceding 
article and of τοι; most vowels and diphthongs absorb the a 
of καί: 

ἁνήρ, τάνδρός, ἅνδρες, αὗτός,. Tar, Kei, 
for ὁ ἀνήρ, τοῦ ἀνδρός, οἱ ἄνδρες, ὁ αὐτός, τοι ἄν, καὶ εἰ, 


97 


98 


ELISION AND CRASIS 15 


But note KGS, κᾷτα, κἄν, 
for καὶ ἐς, καὶ εἶτα, καὶ ἐν. 
0. Ἕτερος is treated as ἅτερος, probably the older form: 
ἅτερος for 6 ἕτερος. 
d. Note also applications of 42: 
Oarepov, χῆ; χοὶ, θοἰμάτιον, 
for τὸ ἕτερον, καὶ ἡ, καὶ οἵ, τὸ ἱμάτιον. 


The accent of the first word is lost in crasis, that of the sec- 
ond retained; see examples in 35 and 36. 


CONSONANTS 


Consonants are classified according as the different organs of 
speech are active in pronouncing them. 

a. Those are sonant (voiced) in which the vocal cords are 
active, as in the vowels. (The vibration may be felt by placing 
the finger on the throat at the “ Adam’s apple.”) These are 
4, ρ, μη v, y nasal; β, ὃ, y (middle mutes); and ¢. 

Those are surd (voiceless) in which the vocal cords are at 
rest. These are o (sibilant, spirant); 7, 7, « (smooth mutes) ; 
¢, 6, x (rough mutes); and y and ἕ. 

b. Mutes (stopped sounds), as the ancients pronounced 
them, require complete closure of the mouth passage, by 
lips or tongue, a brief pressure of the breath behind the bar- 
rier (the nasal passage being also closed by the soft palate) 
and then a quick opening of the barrier. Thus the breath 
finds an explosive exit; the sound can be but slightly pro- 
longed, and is not easily pronounced alone. These are 

a β & labial (or z-mutes); closure by the lips; 

τ ὃ @ dental (or 7t-mutes); closure by the tongue just 
back of the front upper teeth ; 

k y x guttural (or x-mutes); closure by the back of the 
tongue against the soft palate. 

6, Of these, z, 7, κ are smooth mutes, in contrast with ¢, 
6, x. The latter are rough mutes or aspirates; in them the 
opening is more explosive, a z-, τα, or x-sound followed by 


99 


40 


41 


16 SOUNDS AND WRITING 


a distinct h-sound, as in top-heavy, hot-head, pack-horse. In 
the sonants β, δ, y the breath is checked by the vibrating 
vocal cords, so that less breath gathers for explosive exit than 
in the aspirates. The Greeks called these middle mutes, mid- 
way between the smooth mutes and the aspirates in the force 
of the final element. 

ἃ, In the nasals, », v, y nasal, the nasal passage is open, 
the soft,palate being lowered ; thus the breath, after passing 
between the vibrating vocal cords, finds exit through the 
nose; the oral passage is closed, in p by the lips, in v by the 
flattened tongue against the front teeth (the lips being open), 
in y nasal by the back of the tongue against the soft palate 
(the lips being open). 

e. Ψ for zo, € for ὃσ (o being probably made sonant), and 
€ for xo are called double consonants. 


These relations are shown in the following table: 


Voiced Voiceless. . 
Liquids Double Mutes Double 
Conso- ee ee 
Nasals nant Middle Rough Smooth lant nants 
Labials μ β φ π Wy 
Dentals λρ ν re ὃ θ T σ 
Gutturals y nasal y x κ ἕξ 


At the end of a word no consonant could stand but -ν, -p, 
or -s, and no consonantal group but -ψ, -g, or -yé. Any other 
single consonant at the end was dropt; any other group at the 
end caused some change. 

8. Final -As occurs in ἅλς salt, sea; final -vs in Tipuvs 
Tiryns. The proclitics ἐκ out of and οὐκ, ody not are almost 
a part of the following word, and so are hardly exceptions. 


A final -ν (v movable) was added at will to some words. 
These are (1) words in -σι (-Y, -é), (2) verbs in -ε in the third 
singular, (3) ἐστι is, (4) sometimes the irregular ἤει went and 
noe. knew. | 

a. Poetry and inscriptions alike show that v movable was 
freely added before vowels and consonants; before vowels it 


42 


43 


45 


46 


47 


CONSONANTS Ui 


could be omitted and elision used instead. The writer chose 
whichever treatment best pleased his ear. 


Before the rough breathing a smooth mute (7, 7, «) is aspi- 
rated, becoming ¢, @, or x. This occurs in composition, eli- 
sion, and crasis; also in οὐκ: 
ἐπὶ + ὁδός, ἀπὸ ὧν, παῖς τε Hoe, καὶ οἱ, οὐκ become 
ἔφοδος, ap ὧν, παῖς θ᾽ nde, χοὶ, οὐχ. 

a, This change is merely another way of writing the same 
sounds (88 c). It is better in such cases (unless perhaps in 
compounds), and also easier, to keep the ancient sound of 
φ, 6, x and so avoid distorting common words. 


Before a dental mute (7, ὃ, 6) 

a. A labial or guttural mute must agree in aspiration, as 
smooth, middle, or rough; the only combinations are zr, βὲ, 
$0, xt, yd, x9. (But ἐκ in composition is unchanged. ) 

b. Another dental mute changes to co. 


Before μ 
a. A labial mute (7, B, ¢) becomes p, 
b. A guttural mute (x, y, x) becomes y, 
c. A dental mute (7, δ, 6) becomes σ. 


a. With a following o a labial mute forms y, a guttural 
mute forms é. 
b. A dental mute before o disappears. 


Before « a τ often becomes o. τ and o sometimes inter- 
change in other situations; especially the older oc became 
tr as early as 450 B.C. 


Two successive syllables are seldom allowed to begin with a 


rough mute. Accordingly 


a. In reduplication a rough mute is changed to the smooth. 

Ὁ. In the 6@y-passive the aorist imperative ending -& is 
changed to. -τι. 

6, The verb-stems θε- put and @v- sacrifice become τε- and 
Tv- in the 6y-passive. 


48 


49 


ὅ0 


δ1 


18 SOUNDS AND WRITING 


d, Several stems that originally began with one rough mute 
and ended with another have lost the aspiration at the begin- 
ning of most forms, but retain the aspiration there whenever 
the final mute loses it. 


LIQUIDS 


Initial 6 commonly stands for an older fp or op. When, by 
inflection or otherwise, a vowel precedes, the F or o usually 
appears as p instead of the aspiration. Hence the rule: 

Initial p is doubled after the augment and reduplication, 
and in compounds after a short vowel. 


After a nasal in a few words, by unconsciously closing the 
nasal passage too soon, a mute is developed. English exam- 
ples are Thom(p)son, num(b)er (Latin numerus). In Greek 
we find 
After p a B: γαμβρός for yap-pos (root yap-), 
μεσημβρίᾶ for μεσημ(ε)ριᾶ (ἡμέρα) 
After v ἃ δ: ἀνδρός for ἀν(ε)ρος. 


The nasal ν 

a. Before a labial mute or » becomes p. 

Ὁ. Before a guttural mute becomes y nasal. 

0, Before X or p may be assimilated, becoming A or p. 
(But see e.) 

ἃ, But vz becomes σμ in forms of φαίνω and from some 
other verb-stems in -ν. 

6, ἐν remains unchanged before p: &-pvOpos. 


N before σ within a simple word disappears with length- 
ening of the vowel before it; ε becomes εἰ, o becomes ov 
(27 a and 28 b),— 

a, In some derivatives. 

b. In the accusative plural of o stems (62 a). 

0, In the verb-ending -(v)ou (older -ντι) (268 a). 

ἃ, But in the dative plural v before -σι disappears with- 
out vowel-lengthening. 


52 


53 


54 


55 


56 


CONSONANTS 19 


Σύν in composition 
a, Changes v to o before a simple σ. 
Ὁ. Loses v before o followed by a consonant, and before ζ. 


The group v7, vd, or v6 before o disappears, with lengthen- 
ing of the vowel before it (28 b). 


SIGMA 


Initial σ᾽ followed by a vowel is often weakened to the rough 
breathing. Compare 
Greek ὑπό, ὑπέ, ἅλς, ἕρπω, ἵστημι, ἅλλομαι, 
Latin sub, super, sal, serpo, sisto, salio. 
a. Between vowels o is apt to disappear. 
b. Between consonants o disappears. 
ec. When inflection brings two sigmas together, one dis- 
appears. 


CONSONANTS WITH IOTA 


After a consonant ¢ often causes changes. Thus: 

a. Ac becomes AA: ἄλλος, Latin alius. 

Ὁ, After v or p,« is transposed and contracts with the 
stem vowel. 

6, Kt, yt, OY xt, Sometimes τί, becomes ao, later rr. 

ἃ. δι, sometimes γι (also yy), becomes ζ. 


57 


58 


59 


60 


Il. WORDS 


A. NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 


In nouns and adjectives Greek distinguishes more or 
less fully / 
Three Genders—Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter. 
Three Numbers—Singular and Plural, and some- 
times a Dual for two objects only. 
Five Cases—Nominative, Genitive, Dative, Accu- 
sative, and Vocative. 


The genders are grammatical, as in Latin. For the 
most part they agree with the sex, but not always, 
in the case of creatures that have sex ; and names 
of many sexless things are masculine or feminine. 
Gender must be learned by reading and practice. 


The nominative, accusative, and vocative are used 
nearly as in Latin. The genitive is used nearly as in 
Latin, but has also some uses of the Latin ablative, as 
a from case. The dative is used nearly as in Latin, 
but has also some uses of the Latin ablative, as a 
with, by, at, or in case. 


The stem of a noun or adjective is that part to 
which the case-endings are added. The character of 


the stem affects the ending and the way of uniting 
- 20 


61 


62 


CASES AND DECLENSIONS 21 


one to the other. Nouns and adjectives are declined 
in three ways, named from the last letter of the stem : 

The O- Declension, for stems in -o ; 

The A-Declension, for stems in -a; 

The Consonant enienaicn for stems that id In a 
consonant or in c OF v. 

The O- and A- Declensions are so much alike that 
they are together called the Vowel Declension. 


The article ὁ ἡ τό the may be used with any noun, 


and is a convenient mark of gender. It is declined 


thus : 


τοῦ τῆς τοῦ 
πὰ TH TO 
τόν τήν τό 


a. The article has no vocative. The interjection ὦ O is 
familiarly used with a vocative noun, without the emotional 
tone which O implies in English. 


I. O-DECLENSION: NOUNS 


For examples (παραδεΐγματα. see the table on the 


next page. 


a. Masculines and feminines are declined alike. There 
are many more masculines than feminines, but a few femi- 
nines occur often. They take -s in the nominative singular 
and change -o to -e in the vocative singular (25). Note that 
every dative has c, on the line or subscript. In the accusative 
plural -ovs is for -o-vs, by-51 Ὁ. 


22 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 


STEM τς (6) βιο- (ὁ) ἀνθρωπο- (ἡ) ὁδο- (τὸ) δωρο- 
MEANING . life man road gift 
Sing. N.|6 βίο-ς ἄνθρωπο-ς | ὁδό-ς | TO δῶρο-ν 
.| ToD βίου ἀνθρώπου τῆς ὁδοῦ τοῦ δώρου 
τῷ βίῳ ἀνθρώπῳ τῇ ὁδῷ τῷ δώρῳ 
.| τὸν βίο-ν ἄνθρωπο-ν | τὴν ὁδό-ν τὸ δῶρο-ν 
| ὦ le ἄνθρωπε ὦ ὁδέ δῶρο-ν 


So 


οἱ βίοι ἄνθρωποι αἱ ὁδοί | τὰ δῶρα 
. τῶν βίων ἀνθρώπων ᾿τῶν ὁδῶν τῶν δώρων 
.| τοῖς βίοις ἀνθρώποις ταῖς ὁδοῖς τοῖς δώροις 
‘ , > , + e ’ A 
.| τοὺς βίους ἀνθρώπους τὰς ὁδούς TA δῶρα 
ε , ” » e , 4 a 
ὦ βίοι ἄνθρωποι jw ὁδοί (ἰὼ δῶρα 


[τὼ Blo ἀνθρώπω τὼ ὁδώ τὼ Sapo 
. τοῖν βίοιν | ἀνθρώποιν τοῖν ὁδοῖν τοῖν δώροιν 


Ὁ. The nominative is used for the vocative always in θεός 
god, and sometimes in other words. 

ο, Neuters take -ν in the nominative, accusative, and voca- 
tive singular, and change -o to -a in the nominative, accusa- 
tive, and vocative plural (see 25). 


a. The accent of the nominative singular is kept 
throughout, except that 

b. The rules in 12 and 14 must be followed: see 
ἄνθρωπος. 

6, In the genitive and dative an accented long 
ultima takes the circumflex: see ὁδός. 


In the dative plural poets freely use the older ending -οισι; 
so also in the article and in adjectives: βωμοῖσι τοῖς σοῖς, and 
τοῖσιν ἐμπείροισι. 8S. OT. 16, 44. 


VOWEL DECLENSION: NOUNS 23 


II. A-DECLENSION : NouUNS 


65 Feminine noun-stems in -a may be classed in two 
groups; those of the first group retain -a or -a 
throughout the singular, those of the second group 


change -a to -ἡ in all, or in some, singular forms. 


67 In the singular 


66 FEMININES: First GROUP 
AB ok. ἡμερᾶ- σκιᾶ- μοιρᾶ- 
MEANING... day shadow share, fate 
Sing. N. ἡ ἡμέρα σκιᾶ μοῖρα 
G. τὴς ἡμέρας σκιᾶς μοίρᾶς 
D.| TH ἡμέρᾳ σκιᾷ μοίρᾳ 
Ai. τὴν ἡμέρᾶ-ν oKid-v |. μοῖρα-ν 
Εν: ὦ ἡμέρα σκιᾶ μοῖρα 
ΡΝ Υ. αἱ ἡμέραι σκιαί μοῖραι 
G. τῶν ἡμερῶν σκιῶν μοιρῶν 
D. ταῖς ἡμέραιϑ σκιαῖς μοίραις 
a. τὰς ἡμέρᾶς σκιᾶς μοίρᾶς 
Du. N. A. τὼ ἡμέρα σκιᾶ μοίρᾷ 
G. D. τοῖν ἡμέραιν σκιαῖν μοίραιν 


a. The nominative generally has -a after a vowel, 
-a after a consonant. Exceptions are mostly marked 
by the accent (11-18): ὑγίεια health, ἀλήθεια truth, 
χώρα land, Anda Leda. 

b. If the nominative has -a or -η, the other cases 
have the same. 


68 


69 


70 


24 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 


ο, If the nominative has -a, the accusative and 
vocative have the same; the genitive and dative 
have -ἃ after a vowel or p, otherwise -y. 


The rules of accent in 68 a-c apply to all declen- 
sions. But 

a. The genitive plural in the adeclension always 
has the ultima circumflexed, because -ῶν 15 contracted 
from -d-wy (29 ¢ and 80 b). 


a. Poets retain the older ἃ in some words where short a 
appears in prose. 

b. The dramatists in lyric parts use freely the Doric forms 
that retain the older a in place of Attic 7; so, too, in the 


FEMININES: SECOND GROUP 


STEM Gree es τιμᾶ- vika- θαλασσᾶ- 


MEANING... honor victory sea 


Sing. : νίκη θάλασσα 
νίκης θαλάσσης. 
νίκῃ θαλάσσῃ 
νΐκη-ν θάλασσα-ν 
νίκη θάλασσα 


νῖκαι . θβάλασσαι 
ντκῶν θαλασσῶν 
vikats θαλάσσαις 
vikas θαλάσσᾶς 


νίκα θαλάσσᾶ 
£ , 
νῖκαιν θαλάσσαιν 


71 


A-DECLENSION: NOUNS 


25 


genitive plural, -av for -®v; likewise in the article and in ad- 
jectives and pronouns of this declension. 

6, In the dative plural the poets use freely the older ending 
-αισι; 80, too, in the article and in adjectives and pronouns 


(cp. 64). 


ΗΜ 


MEANING... 


Sing. N. 


veavia- 


young man 


νεᾶνία-ς 
νεανίου 
νεᾶνίᾳ 
νεᾶνία-ν 
νεανία 


νεᾶνίαι 
νεᾶνιῶν 
νεᾶνίαις 
νεανίας 


νεᾶνία 
νεᾶνίαιν 


MASCULINES 


πολττᾶ- 


citizen 


πολίτη-ς 
“ 
TOALTOV 
πολίτῃ 
“ 
πολῖτη-ν 
πολῖτα 


πολῖται 
πολιτῶν 
.- 
πολῖταις 
τῳ, 
πολιτᾶς 


πολίτα 
4 
πολῖταιν 


ποιητᾶ- 


maker, poet 


TOLNTH-S 
ποιητοῦ 
ποιητῇ 
ποιητή-ν 
ποιητά 


ποιηταί 

ποιητῶν 
ποιηταῖς 
ποιητᾶς 


ποιητὰ 
ποιηταῖν 


72 Masculine stems in -ἃ are like feminines, except in the singu. 


lar, as follows: 


a. They change -a to -ἡ except after ες ει; or p. 
b. The nominative ends in -s. 
6, The genitive ending -ov is borrowed from the o-de- 


clension. 


d. In the vocative nouns in -rys have -ra. Also national 


names in -y7s have -a: Πέρσης, Πέρσα. 
πότης master has recessive accent: δέσποτα. 


The vocative of dec- 


e. Some proper names in -as (Doric or foreign) make the 
genitive in -ἃ, and retain ἃ throughout, contrary to 67 c. 


20 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 


III. ADJECTIVES OF THE VOWEL DECLENSION 


73 Many adjectives follow the o-declension, the mas- 
culine and feminine being alike, as with nouns. Here 
belong nearly all compound stems in -o. 


STEM ἡσυχο- 


MEANING. . . quiet 


Mosier aN, M. F. N, 
Sing. . ἥσυχος ἥσυχον Plur. N.| ἥσυχοι ἥσυχα 
ἡσύχου : ἡσύχων 
ἡσύχῳ ἰ ἡσύχοις 
; ἥσυχον .| ἡσύχους ἥσυχα 
.]ῆσυχε ἥσυχον .| ἥσυχοι ἥσυχα 


75 Still more adjectives have a stem in -o for the mas- 
culine and neuter, and a stem in -a for the feminine. 


EGO sOTEM: 5a: σοφο-, σοφᾶ- δικαιο-, δικαιᾶ- 


MEANING. . wise just, upright 


Sing. Ν. σοφός σοφή σοφόν |δίκαιος δικαία δίκαιον 

χ. σοφοῦ σοφῆς σοφοῦ |δικαίου δικαίας δικαίου 
1). σοφῷ σοφῇ σοφῷ δικαίῳ δικαίᾷ δικαίῳ 
Α. σοφόν σοφήν σοφόν | δίκαιον δικαίαν δίκαιον 
γι σοφέ σοφή σοφόν |δίκαιε δικαία δίκαιον 


Pl. ΝΥ. σοφοί σοφαί σοφά [δίκαιοι δίκαιαι δίκαια 
χ. σοφῶν σοφῶν σοφῶν | δικαίων δικαίων δικαίων 
1). σοφοῖς σοφαῖς σοφοῖς δικαίοις δικαίαις δικαίοις 
Α. σοφούς σοφᾶς σοφά δικαίους δικαίᾶς δίκάια 


5 , ᾽ν , , j—_ , 
Du. N.A.| σοφώ σοφὰ σοφώ |bikaiw δικαία δικαίω 
G.D.| σοφοῖν σοφαῖν σοφοῖν δικαίοιν δικαίαιν δικαίοιν 


NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 27 


77 ἃ. The feminine singular has -a after «, 1, or p, other: 
Wise -7. 
b. In the nominative and genitive plural the femi- 
nine is accented like the masculine, not as it would 
be inanoun: δίκαιαι and δικαίων. 


78 Some adjectives are declined now with, now with- 
out, a separate feminine. specially in poetry the 
forms vary. 


IV. CONTRACTED VOWEL STEMS 


79 Stems in -eo and -oo are contracted (29 a, b, and e. 
But -ea becomes -a.) 


80 


re... voo-, vou- ὀστεο-, ὀστου- 


MEANING. . mind bone 


Sing. N.| ὁ (νόος) νοῦς 


τὸ (ὀστέον) ὀστοῦν 
G. (νόου) νοῦ (ὀστέου) ὀστοῦ 
itp (νόῳ) vo (ὀστέῳ) ὀστῴῷ 
A. (νόον) νοῦν (ὀστέον) ὀστοῦν 


Plur. N. (voor) vot 
r. (vdwv) νῶν 

(vdots) 

(νόους) 


(ὀστέα) ὀστᾶ 
(ὀστέων) ὀστῶν 
(ὀστέοις) ὀστοῖς 


(ὀστέα) ὀστᾶ 


The vocative and the dual do not occur. 


81 a. Simple nouns take the circumflex on the ultima 
throughout. 
b. Compounds keep the accent on the syllable that 
has it in the nominative singular: ἔκπλους, ἔκπλου, 
extrov. So also adjectives (83). 


28 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 


εὐνοο-, εὐνου- 


MEANING. . kind, friendly 


SING. M. F. N. Puur. Μ. F. N. 


N. εὔνους εὔνουν εὖνοι εὔνοα 
α. εὔνου εὔνων 
1. εὔνῳ εὔνοις 
Α. εὔνουν εὔνους εὔνοα 


83 Compound adjectives of this class retain -oa in the 
neuter plural uncontracted. or the accent see 81 b. 


84 Some stems in -a@ contract; they have the circum- 
flex throughout (80 b). 


85 |Srem....| > ?A@nvaa- γεᾶ- 
᾿Αθηνᾶ- γη- 


Athena 


“Epped- 
Ἕρμη- 
Hermes, Pl. tmages of ἢ. 


earth 


MEANING. 


᾿Αθηνᾶ γῆ “Ἑρμῆς Ἑρμαῖ 


N.V. 


G. ᾿Αθηνᾶς γῆς “Eppod ‘Eppav 
}. ᾿Αθηνᾷ γῇ Ἑρμῇ Ἑρμαῖς 


A. ᾿Αθηνᾶν γῆν ᾿Ἑρμὴν Ἑρμᾶς 


86 Poets use the forms ᾿Αθάνα, "A@avas, etc.; also the Doric 
forms γᾶ, etc., as well as the longer γαῖα, γαίας, etc. 


87 A few adjectives of color and material in -eos, and 
a few of number in -πλόος, usually contract, and have 
a separate feminine : 
πορφύρεος, πορφυρέᾶ, πορφύρεον dark red; 
χρὕσεος, χρῦσέα, χρύσεον golden ; 
ἁπλόος, ἁπλόη, ἁπλόον single. 


NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 29 


πορφυρεο-, πορφυρεᾶ- 
MEANING. . dark red or purple 


M. F, N. 
N.| πορφυροῦς πορφυρᾶ πορφυροῦν 
α.} πορφυροῦ πορφυρᾶς πορφυροῦ 
D.| πορφυρῷ πορφυρᾷ πορφυρῷ 
A 
N 


Sing. 


.| πορφυροῦν Troppupav πορφυροῦν 
πορφυροῖ πορφυραῖ πορφυρᾶ 
πορφυρῶν πορφυρῶν πορφυρῶν 
πορφυροῖς πορφυραῖς πορφυροῖς 
πορφυροῦς πορφυρᾶς πορφυρᾶ 


89 a. Contractions are mostly as in nouns, but the final 


90 


syllables characteristic of this declension are kept ; 
hence in the singular -pa (not -py: 77a) and ἁπλῆ, 
and in the neuter plural -ἃ (not -). 

b. The contract forms all take the circumflex on 


the ultima, sometimes contrary to 80 a. 


STEM . χρύσεο-, χρυσεᾶ- διπλοο-; διπλοᾶ- 
MEAN. golden double 
SING. M. ἐν N. M. F N 


N. |xpicots χρῦύσῆ χρῦσοῦν διπλοῦς διπλῆ διπλοῦν 
α. χρῦσοῦ χρῦσῆς χρῦσοῦ διπλοῦ διπλῆς διπλοῦ 
D. χρυσῷ χρῦσῇ xpiod διπλῷ διπλῇ διπλῷ 

A. |Xpicotv χρῦσῆν χρῦσοῦν διπλοῦν διπλῆν διπλοῦν 


PLuR. 

N. |xptoot χρῦσαϊ χρῦσᾶ [διπλοῖ διπλαῖ διπλόα 
G. χρῦσῶν χρῦσῶν χρυσῶν διπλῶν διπλῶν διπλῶν 
D. | xptoots χρῦσαϊς χρῦσοϊς διπλοῖς διπλαῖς διπλοῖς 
A. |xptoots χρῦσᾶς χρῦσᾶ διπλοῦς διπλᾶς διπλόα 


80 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 


Q - DECLENSION 


91 A few noun and adjective stems have changed -o 
(generally -do) to -w (-ew), and are declined as fol-_ 
lows (w-declension) : 


STEM VGo-, νεω- tXdo-, ἕλεω- 


MEANING ... temple gracious 


M. F. 
Sing. N.V. νεώς ἵλεως 
νεώ 


, 


νεῷ 


L 


VEOV ἵλεων 


ἵλεῳ 


ἵλεως 


93 a. The ὦ appears in all cases except the neuter plural 
nominative and accusative; οὐ of the usual form be- 
comes ῳ. 

b. The long ultima does not exclude the acute ac- 
cent from the antepenult—an exception to 12. 

ce. The accent of the nominative singular is retained 
throughout. (An accented ultima in the genitive 
and dative is circumflexed by some editors.) 

94 The stem éw-, nominative (ἡ) ἕως dawn, has in the accusa- 


tive ἕω (not éwv). So sometimes other nouns and adjectives: 
tov Μίνω, τὴν Κέω, ete. 


95 The adjective πλέως full has the regular feminine πλέα, etc. 


CONSONANT DECLENSION: NOUNS 91 


96 Instead of the regular forms of σῶος, oda, σῶον safe, wn- 
harmed, Attic writers more often use 


M. F. N. M.F. N. 
Sing. N. σῶς σῶν PLN. o@ σὰ 
A. σῶν Α. σῶς σᾶ 


97 Sometimes, especially in poetry, the regular forms from 
stems in -ἄο are used: vaovs, MevéAdos, ἕλᾶοι. 


V. CoNSONANT DECLENSION: NOUNS 


98 ΤῸ the consonant declension belong, among nouns, 
Liquid stems ending in -A, -v, -p, 
Guttural stems ending in -x, -y -x, 
Labial and dental stems ending in -z, -β, and in -r, -3, -6, 
Neuter stems ending in -r, 
Masculine stems ending in -ντ, 
Stems ending in -eo, -ac, 
Stems ending in -ἰ, -v, 
Stems ending in -ev, -av, -ov, 
Stems ending in -o, -o, 
Some irregular nouns. 


99 LIQUID STEMS IN -A, -ν 


(6) μην- (6) ἀγων- 
MEANING... month contest 
μήν ἀγών 
μην-ός ἀγῶν-ος 
μην-ί ἀγῶν-ι 
μῆν-α ἀγῶν-α 


P 
oS 
0 
“ 
< 


μῆν-ες ᾿ ἀγῶν-ες 
μην-ῶν ἀγών-ων 
μη-σί ἀγῶ-σι 

μῆν-ας ἀγῶν-ας 


Ὁ 
- 


μῆν-ε ἀγῶν-ε 
μην-οῖν ἀγών-οιν 


6. 
Ὁ. 
ina 
v. 
G. 
D. 
A. 
wy 
ET). 


32 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 


100 In ἅλς (see 40 a) both stem and case-endings are unchanged 
throughout. 


101 Monosyllabie stems of this declension accent the 
ending in the genitive and dative ; -av and -ow take 
the circumflex. 

a. Not so, however, the genitive plural (and dual) of. 
6, 7, παῖς, παιδ-ός child, 
ὁ Tpws, Tpw-ds Trojan, 
TO οὖς, WT-OS ear, 
ὁ duds, Suw-ds slave (poetic). 
Thus παιδ-ί, παι-σί, but παίδ-ων, παίδ-οιν. 


109. Liguip STEMS (continued) IN -ν, -p 
STEM τ (ὁ) λιμεν- (6) δαιμον- (6) ῥητορ- 
MEANING... | harbor divinity speaker 
Sing, N.| λιμήν δαίμων ῥήτωρ 
G. ALpLev-05 δαίμον-ος ῥήτορ-ος 
D. λιμέν-ι δαίμον-ι ῥήτορ-ι 
Α. λιμέν-α δαίμον-α ῥήτορ-α 
ve λιμήν δαῖμον ῥῆτορ 
ΡΙαν. ΝΟΝ.  λιμέν-ες δαίμον-ες ῥήτορ-ες 
G. λιμέν-ων δαιμόνων  Ὕἠῥητόρ-ων 
D. λιμέ-σι δαίμο-σι ῥήτορ-σι 
FN λιμέν-ας δαίμον-ας ῥήτορ-ας 
Du. N. A λιμέν-ε δαίμον-ε ῥήτορ-ε, 
λιμέν-οιν δαιμόν-οιν ῥητόρ-οιν 


103 Stems in -ν and -p 
a. Omit the case-ending -s and lengthen a short ultima 
(40) : δαίμων for δαιμον-ς, ῥήτωρ for ῥητορ-ς. 


104 


10ὅ 


106 


CONSONANT DECLENSION: NOUNS 33 


b. But note ὃ δελφίς dolphin for δελφῖν-ς and ἡ Σαλαμίς 
Salamis for Ξαλαμῖν-ς. 

c, As a vocative singular they use the nominative if the 
ultima is accented; otherwise the simple stem. 

d. For λιμέσι, δαίμο-σι, see 51 ἃ, 


᾿Απόλλων Apollo has in the accusative singular ᾿Απόλλωνα, but 


oftener ᾿Απόλλω ; the vocative is "AzoAAov, with recessive ac- 
cent (cp. δέσποτα, 72 a). 

A few common stems in -ep make a class by them- 
selves. ‘They accent the ending in the genitive and 
dative singular as if monosyllabic, reject ε in those 
cases, change ep to pa in the dative plural, and in 
the vocative singular have recessive accent (ep. 
“AmrodXov, 104). 


STEMS IN -ep 


(δ) ἀνερ- (ἢ) μητερ- (ἡ) θυγατερ- 


MEANING .. father man mother daughter 


‘oh Se (6) πατερ- 


Sing. N.| πατήρ ἀνήρ μήτηρ θυγάτηρ 
G.| πατρός ἀνδρ-ός μητρ-ός θυγατρ-ός 
D.| πατρ-ί ἀνδρ-ί μητρ-ί θυγατρ-ί 
A.| tatép-a | dvip-a | μητέρ-α | θυγατέρ-α 
V.| πάτερ ἄνερ μῆτερ θύγατερ 


Plur. N.V.| πατέρ-ες ἄνδρ-ες | μητέρ-ες θυγατέρ-ες 
G.| tatép-wv | ἀνδρ-ῶν | pntép-wv | θυγατέρ-ων 
D.| πατρά-σι ἀνδρά-σι μητρά-σι θυγατρά-σι 
A.| tatép-as ἄνδρ-ας | μητέρ-ας | θυγατέρ-ας 
A 
D 


.| watép-e | dvdp-e untép-e | Ovyatép-e 


.| πατέρ-οιν dvdp-otv μητέρ-οιν  θυγατέρ-οιν 


94 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 


107 In ἀνήρ after « was lost 6 was developed between v and p 
(49). Thus the stem becomes ἀνδρ- in most forms; hence the 
accent of ἀνδρῶν, ἀνδροῖν (101). 


108 a. Like πατήρ is declined ὃ γαστήρ (yaorep-) belly. 


b. Nearly like μήτηρ except in accent is Δημήτηρ Demeter, G. 
Δήμητρος, D. Δήμητρι, A. Δήμητρα, V. Δήμητερ. 


109 GUTTURAL STEMS IN -κ, -y 


TEMG oe. Y (6) φυλακ- 


MEANING... guard 


Sing, N.V. | φύλαξ 
φύλακ-ος 
φύλακ-ι 
φύλακ-α 


φύλακ-ες 
φυλάκ-ων 
φύλαξι 

φύλακ-ας 


φύλακ-ε 


φυλάκ-οιν 


110 For -é and -é see 45 a. 


111 a. In ὃ κῆρυξ, xnpix-os herald, Ὁ becomes short in the nomi- 


native and vocative singular. So τ in ὃ φοῖνιξ, φοίνϊκ-ος, date- 


palm. 


Ὁ. The stem θριχ- hair follows 47 d; thus ἡ θρίξ, ταῖς 
θριξί, but τριχός, τριχί, τρίχα, ete. 

6. The stem (6) ἀνακτ- king, chief, loses r before -ς and -σι, 
and loses xr in the voc. sing.: ἄναξ, dvaxt-os, dvakt-t, ἄνακτ-α, 
ἄναξ (also ἄνα sometimes), pl. dvaxt-es, ἀνάκτ-ων, ἄναξι, ἄνακτ-ας. 


(ἡ) φαλαγγ- 
battle-line 


φάλαγξ 
φάλαγγ-ος 
dadayy-t 
φάλαγγ-α 


φάλαγγ-ες 
φαλάγγ-ων 
φάλαγξι 

φάλαγγ-ας 


φάλαγγ-ε 
φαλάγγ-οιν 


So, too, ἡ νύξ, νυκτ-ός, night, makes the dat. pl. νυξί 


112 


STEM... .;. 
MEANING... 


Sing. N.V. 


Plur. ΝΟΥ. 


Du. 


as 
Os 


113 For -) and -ψι see 45 a; for yeAw(r)s and γελωί 


114 


Lo τ 
MEANING... 


G. 


α. 


PUO<| Poo 


Sing. N.V. 


Pinr, N.V. 


(0) κλωπ- 
thief 


κλώψ 
κλωπ-ός 
κλωπτ-ί 
κλῶπ-α 


κλῶπο-ες 
κλωτπ-ῶν 
κλωψί 


κλῶπο-ας 


KAOTI-€ 
κλωτ΄-οῖν 


DENTAL STEMS IN -r, -δ, -θ 


(ἡ) ἐλπιδ- 
hope 
ἐλπίς 
ἐλπίδ-ος 
ἐλπίδ-ι 
ἐλπίδ-α 


ἐλπίδ-ες 
ἐλπίδ-ων 
ἐλπί-σι 

ἐλπίδ-ας 


ἐλπίδ-ε 
ἐλπίδ-οιν 


(6) ᾿Αραβ- 
Arab 


ἔΑραψ 


ἼΑραβ-ος 
ἼΑραβ-ι 
ἼΑραβ-α 


ἤΑραβ-ες 


᾿Αράβ-ων 
"Apa 


” ApaB-e 
* ApaB-ouv 


(ἡ) χαριτ- 
grace 


χάρις 
χάριτ-ος 
χάριτ-ι 
χάριν 


χάριτ-ες 
χαρίτ-ων 
χάρι-σι 

χάριτ-ας 


χάριτ-ε 
χαρίτ-οιν 


Αραβ-ας 


CONSONANT DECLENSION: NOUNS 


LABIAL AND DENTAL STEMS IN -z, -β, -r 


(ὁ) γελωτ- 
laughter 


γέλως 
γέλωτ-ος 
γέλωτ-ι 
γέλωτ-α 


γέλωτ-ες 
γελώτ-ων 
γέλω-σι 

γέλωτ-ας 


γέλωτ-ε 
γελώτ-οιν 


tor see 45 b, 


(ὃ, ἡ) ὀρντθ- 


bird 
ὄρνῖς 
dpvt8-os 
ὄρνιθ-ι 
ὄρνῖν 
ὄρνιθ-ες 
ὀρνίθ-ων 
ὄρνῖ-σι 
ὄρνιθ-ας 


ὄρνιθ-ε 
ὀρνίθ-οιν 


115 Stems in -τ, -δ, -0 after wnaccented i or v lose the 
mute and take -ν in the accusative singular, as if 


90 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 


they were stems in τὶ or τυ (180): ἡ κόρυς, κόρυθ-ος 
helmet, acc. κόρυν. 
116 The vocative of παῖς, παιδ-ός child is rat. The stem was origi- 


nally zaid-; hence the irregular accent: παῖς, παίδων, παίδοιν 
(101 and a). 


117 The nominative singular is irregular in ὁ πούς, ποδ-ός foot. 


118 NEUTER STEMS IN -t 


(τὸ) σωματ- (τὸ) Tepat-, τερασ- 


body portent 


Ding, Ne AV. σῶμα τέρας 
α. σώματ-ος τέρατ-ος 
D. σώματ-ι τέρατ-ι 


ῬΙ Ν oye σώματ-α τέρατ-α 
(x σωμάτ-ων τεράτ-ων 
D. σώμα-σι τέρα-σι 


Dual ΝΟΥ. σώματ-ε τέρατ-ε 
0; σωμάτ-οιν τεράτ-οιν 


119 In the nominative, accusative, and vocative singular 
neuters take no case-ending ; final -r is dropt (40) ; 
in τὸ γάλα, γάλακτ-ος milk, final -κτ is dropt; τέρας 
is another form of the stem τερατ- (46). 


120 Different but related stems appear in 
TO ὕδωρ, ὕδατ-ος Water, τὸ ἧπαρ, ἥπατ-ος Liver, 
τὸ γόνυ, yovat-os knee, τὸ δόρυ, δόρατ-ος spear, 
τὸ οὖς, ὠτ-ός ρα", τὸ φῶς, φωτ-ός light (sing. only). 
a. Φῶς is contracted (hence the accent, 30 b) from older 
φάος, Which is the common form in verse. 


CONSONANT DECLENSION: NOUNS 37 


121 MASCULINE STEMS IN -ντ 

oe a ᾿. (6) γιγαντ- (δ) ὀδοντ- (ὁ) λεοντ- 

MEANING .... giant tooth lion 

Sing. ΝΥ.) ylyas ὀδούς λέων 
G. γίγαντ-ος ὀδόντ-ος λέοντ-ος 
D. | γίγαντε-ι ὀδόντ-ι λέοντ-ι 
Ἂν γίγαντ-α ὀδόντ-α λέοντ-α 

Bute ΝΟΥ. γίγαντ-ες ὀδόντ-ες λέοντ-ες 
G.  γιγάντ-ων ὀδόντ-ων λεόντ-ων 
1). ) γίγᾶ-σι ὀδοῦ-σι λέου-σι 
A. | ylyavt-as ὀδόντ-ας λέοντ-ας 

Du. N.V. | γίγαντ-ε ὀδόντ-ε λέοντ-ε 

α. D. 1 γιγάντ-οιν ὀδόντ-οιν λεόντ-οιν 


122 a. For yiyas (from yyavr-s) and ὀδούς (from ddovr-s) see ὅ9 
and 28 b; so in the dative plural. 

Ὁ. But many stems in -ovr form the nominative singular 

as in λέων, omitting -s, dropping 7+, and lengthening o to wo. 


123 All noun stems in -ντ are masculine. 


124 STEMS IN -eo, -ασ 

i  --".-.. (τὸ) γενεσ- (τὸ) κρεασ- 

MEANING. .... race meat 

Sing. N. A.V. |. γένος κρέας 
x. | (yéve-os) γένους | (κρέα-ος) κρέως 
D. | (γένει) γένει (Kp€a-t) κρέαι 

Plur. N. A.V. | (yéve-a) γένη (kpéa-a) κρέα 
G. γενέτων γενῶν (Kped-wv) κρεῶν 
D. γένε-σι κρέα-σι 


Du. N. A. | (yéve-e) γένει (kpéa-€) κρέα 
α. D. | (yevé-ow) yevotv | (κρεά-οιν) Kpedv 


98 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 


125 a. In neuter stems -ex becomes τὸς in the nomina- 
tive, accusative, and vocative singular (25); else- 
where o is lost (55 a and c), and concurrent vowels 
are contracted (29). But the genitive plural -ἔων is 
often left uncontracted. The dual is rare. 

Ὁ. Stems in -ασ likewise lose o and contract. 


126 τὸ κέρας horn, wing (of an army), has the inflection of two 
stems, κερᾶτ- and κερασ-. 


SINGULAR PLURAL 


κέρας κέρᾶτ-α κέραᾶ 


,» «- , .« ΝᾺ 
κέρᾶτ-ος κέρως κερᾶτ-ων κερῶν 
κέρατ-ι κέραι κέρᾶ-σι 


127 Proper names with stems in -eo are nearly like the 
masculine of adjectives with stems in -eo (151-154). 


(6) Σωκρατεσ- (6) Περικλεεσ- 
Sokrates Pertkles 


Σωκράτης (Περικλέης) Περικλῆς 


Σωκράτους Περικλέους 
Σωκράτει (Περικλέει) Περικλεῖ 
Σωκράτη or -ν Περικλέα (Περικλῆ) 
Σώκρατες Περίκλεις 


128 a. Accusatives like Σωκράτην are formed on the model of α- 
declension masculines (71). For the accent of Σώκρατες see 
153 a. 
Ὁ. The forms in parenthesis appear in poetry. 
6, Here belongs also ὃ [Ἄρης Aves, α΄. "Ἄρεος and ἤλρεως, D. 
"Apa, A. “Apn and “Apnv, V. Apes. 


CONSONANT DECLENSION: NOUNS 


39 


129 The one stem in -οσ, αἰδοσ- respect, shame, is declined in the 
sing. only: ἡ αἰδώς, αἰδοῦς, αἰδοῖ, αἰδῶ. 


190 


131 


STEMS IN -ἰ AND -v 


ey) ss (ἢ) πολι- (ὁ) πηχυ- (τὸ) ἀστυ- 
MEANING. ... state, city forearm, cubit city 
Sing. N.| πόλι-ς πῆχυ-ς ἄστυ 

G.| πόλε-ως TX E-WS ἄστε-ως 

D.| πόλει πήχει ἄστει 

A.| πόλιςν πῆχυ-ν ἄστυ 

V.| Wort πῆχυ ἄστυ 
Plur. N.V.j| πόλεις πήχεις (ἄστε-α) ἄστη 

G.| πόλε-ων πήχε-ων ἄστε-ων 

D.| πόλε-σι πήχε-σι ἄστε-σι 

Α. πόλεις πήχεις (ἄστε-α) ἄστη 
Du. N.A.| πόλε-ε πήχε-ε ἄστε-ε 

α. D.| πολέ-οιν πηχέ-οιν ἀστέ-οιν 


a. Feminines in -. are a large class, many of them 
nouns of action in -ovs or -τις (406). The genitive 
and dative (and the rare dual) have ε for 1; and the 
nominative plural, which is used also as the accusa- 
tive, has «. The ending τος becomes -ws (28 a) ; -ws 
and -ων do not exclude the accent from the ante- 
penult. 

Ὁ. Stems in wnaccented -v closely resemble cstems. The 


forms in parenthesis in the plural of neuters occur in 
poetry. 


132 


133 


134 


135 


40 ᾿ NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 


STEMS IN -v, τὖ 


SLUM cose ste!) (δ, }) wu-, oi- (ὁ) ἰχθυ-, ἰχθυ- 
MEANING. ... swine fish 
Sing. ΟΝ. σῦ-ς ἰχθύ-ς 
G. συ-ός ἰχθύ-ος 
1. συ-ί ἰχθύ-ι 
A. σῦ-ν ἰχθύ-ν 
V. σῦ | ix Ov 
ΠΣ ΠΩΣ σύ-ες ἰχθύ-ες 
G. συ-ῶν ἰχθύ-ων 
D. συ-σί ἰχθύ-σι 
aly ot-s ἰχθῦς 
ΠΝ ΤᾺ: σύ-ε ἰχθύ-ε 
Coa BE ov-olv ἰχθύ-οιν 


a. Accented -v at the end of the stem is made long 
in the nominative, accusative, and vocative singular, 
which in monosyllables are circumflexed. 


b. In the accusative plural -ds probably results from drop- 
ping v of the old ending -vs (cp. 62 a and 51 b). 


Stems in -ev, -av, and -ov (136) lose v before a vowel 
(27; cp. Lat. ndvis and b6s, bovis). 


a, Stems in -ev originally had -yv; traces of the ἡ remain (1) 
in the lengthening of the endings -os, -a, -as to -ws -a, -ds; 
(2) in the older nominative plural ending -js (contracted from 
jes); Open ἡ later became closer εἰ (24). 

b. In poetry, less often in prose, the accusative plural is 
sometimes like the nominative, in -εῖς, 


186 


137 


138 


139 


140 


CONSONANT DECLENSION: 


STEMS IN -ev, -av, -ov 


πε (ὁ) ἱππευ- 


MEANING. ... horseman 


ἱππεύ-ς 
ἱππέ-ως 
ἱππεῖ 
ἱππέ-ἃ 
ἱππεῦ 


Sing. 


ἱππεῖς 
ἱππέ-ων 
ἱπτπεῦ-σι 
ἱππέ-ας 


ἵἱππέ-ε 
ἱππέ-οιν 


N. 
G. 
D. 
A. 
Υ. 
A‘ 
G. 
D. 
Ἂς 
A 
D. 


Ὁ 
Ξ 
τοῦς 


NOUNS 41 


(δ, ἡ) βου- 


0x, cow 


Bot-s 
Bo-ds 
Bo-t 
Bot-v 
Bot 


βό-ες 
βο-ῶν 
βου-σί 
βοῦ-ς 


βό-ε 


Bo-otv 


In vav-, originally vyv-, νη- is retained before a short 
vowel, but made ve before a long (ω or ou), while 
vav- stands before a consonant ; -ώς keeps the accent 


of the original -ds. 


The stem (ἡ) oi- sheep (originally ofi-; cp. Lat. ovis), is de- 


clined: Sing. ols, oids, oii, οἷν, of; Pl. otes, οἰῶν, οἰσί, οἷς. 


Stems in -ev with a preceding vowel often contract in the 
gen. and acc. sing. and plu.: Πειραιέως or Πειραιῶς, Πειραιέα or 
Πειραιᾶ ; Εὐβοέων or Εὐβοῶν, EvBoeas or Εὐβοᾶς. 


Stems in -w and -o (141) are few, the latter mostly 


names of women. 


42 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 


141 STEMS IN -w AND -o 


(ἡ) πειθο- 


persuasion 


SING. Pur. 
ἥρω-ς ἥρω-ες πειθώ 
ἥρω-ος ἡρώ-ων πειθοῦς 
ἥρω-ι ἥρω-σι πειθοῖ 
ἥρω-α ἥρω-ας πειθώ 


itd e 


ἥρω-ς ἥρω-ες πειθοῖ 


Du. N.A. ἥρω-ε G.D. ἡρώ-οιν 


IRREGULAR NOUNS 


142 Some nouns in frequent use are quite irregular. The com- 
monest are: 
1. ἡ γυνή woman, wife, otherwise from the stem γυναικ- 
(which loses -« in the voc. sing.), with irregular accent : 
S. γυνή, γυναικ-ός, γυναικ-ί, γυναῖκ-α, γύναι, 
Pl. γυναῖκ-ες, γυναικ-ῶν, γυναιξί, γυναῖκ-ας. 
ὁ Ζεύς, Zeus, V. Zed, but G. Διός, Ὁ. Διί, A. Ata. 
(6, ἡ) Kvov-, kuv-, dog: 
S. κύων, κυν-ός, κυν-ί, κύν-α, κύον, 


ae 
ὃ. 


Pl. κύν-ες, κυν-ῶν, κυ-σί, κύν-ας. 
4, (6) μαρτυ-, μαρτυρ-, witness : 
S. μάρτυ-ς, μάρτυρ-ος, μάρτυρ-ι, μάρτυρ-α, 
Pl. μάρτυρ-ες, μαρτύρ-ων, μάρτυ-σι, μάρτυρ-ας. 
5. Besides 6 ὄνειρος dream, and τὸ ὄνειρον, regular, appear 
the stems (τὸ) ὀναρ- and éveipar- : 
S. ὄναρ, dveipat-os, évetpat-t, 
Pl. ὀνείρατ-α, ὀνειράτ-ων, ὀνείρασι. 


0. ἡ Πνύξ Pnyx makes G. Πυκν-ός, D. Πυκν-ί, A. Πύκν-α. 


CONSONANT DECLENSION: NOUNS 43 


ἡ. The adjective πρέσβυ-ς old is in the plural masculine the 
regular word for envoy, ambassador. In poetry the singular 
also has the same meaning, as well as that of old, but the prose 
singular is πρεσβευτής, a noun of the agent (405) from the 
verb πρεσβεύω. Thus: 

S. πρεσβευτής, -τοῦ, -τῇ, -THV, -τά, 
Pl. πρέσβεις, πρέσβεων, πρέσβεσι, πρέσβεις. 
The prose word for old man is πρεσβύτης (or γέρων). 
8. (τὸ) πῦρ-, πυρ- fire makes its plural of the o-declension: 
S. πῦρ, πυρ-ός, πυρ-ΐ, 
Pl. πυρά, πυρῶν, πυροῖς camp-fires, beacons. 

9. Besides 6 υἱός son, regular, forms are made from the 

stem viv-: 
S. (vids) vidos, viet, vida, (vids and vivy, inscriptions), 
Pl. υἱεῖς, υἱέων, υἱέσι, υἱεῖς, 
Du. υἱέε, υἱέοιν. 
Forms also occur with v for υἱ: ὑός, ὑοῦ, ὑέος. 
10. (ἡ) xeup-, xep- hand: 
S. χείρ, xeup-ds, χειρ-ί, χεῖρ-α, 
Pl. χεῖρ-ες, χειρ-ῶν, χερ-σί, χεῖρ-ας, 
Du. χεῖρ-ε, χερ-οῖν. 
ἃ. Poets use also χερ-ός, χερ-ί, χέρ-α, χέρ-ες, χερ-ῶν, χέρ-ας. 


143 In poetry the following also are found: 

1. Besides δάκρυον tear, regular, also τὸ δάκρυ and τοῖς 
δάκρυ-σι. 

2. From (τὸ) δορ- spear: G. δορ-ός, D. dop-¢ and δόρει. For 
δορυ- and dopar- see 120. 

3. From (τὸ) xapa- head: N. A. κάρα, 1). xépa. But G. xpar- 
és, 1). κρατ-ί; also N. A. τὸ κρᾶτα. 

4. Besides ὄρνις (115), forms from the stem ὀρνι-: 

Si. N. dpve-s, A. dpvev, Pl. N. A. ὄρνεις, G. ὄρνε-ων. 

5. Besides ὃ χρώς, χρωτός skin, regular, also G. xpo-ds, D. 

xpo-i and χρῷ. 


144 


145 


146 


44 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 


In some nouns the plural may be of different gender from 
the singular: ὁ otros grain, food, pl. τὰ otra; τὸ στάδιον stade, 
race-course, pl. στάδιοι or στάδια. 


VI. CoNSONANT DECLENSION : ADJECTIVES 


Some nouns of classes already described were origi- 
nally adjectives and continued to be used as such, 
masculine and feminine alike (neuter, too, when there 
is one) of one ending : 
φυγάς, φυγάδ-ος exiled (like ἐλπίς, 114), 
γυμνής, γυμνῆτ-ος light-armed, 
πένης, πένητ-ος }007. 
With these belong some other adjectives, as 
μάκαρ, μάκαρ-ος blessed (ep. 102), 
ἅρπαξ, ἅρπαγ-ος rapacious (cp. 109), 
ἀγνώς, ἀγνῶτ-ος unknown (ep. 112), 
ἄπαις, ἀπαιδ-ος childless (cp. 114). 


Many adjectives are of two endings; the neuter dif- 
fers from the masculine in the nominative and accu- 
sative only. Here are many adjectives compounded 
of nouns of this declension : 


Ν. F. N. 
εὔελπις εὔελπι, ἄ. εὐέλπιδτ-ος of good hope, 
ἄχαρις ἄχαρι, G. ἀχάριττος — lacking grace, 
εὐδαίμων εὐδαιμον, G. evdaipov-os fortunate, 
εὐήθης εὔηθες, G. εὐήθους simple-minded, 


Here belong also comparative adjectives in -wy 
(stem in -ov): βελτίων better. 


CONSONANT DECLENSION: ADJECTIVES 45 


147 ADJECTIVES OF Two ENDINGS 


εὐ-δαιμον- fortunate ἀ-χαρι- lacking grace 


M. F. Ν, M. F. N. 
εὐδαίμων εὔδαιμον | ἄχαρι-ς ἄχαρι 
εὐδαίμον-ος ἀχάριτ-ος 
εὐδαίμον-ι ἀχάριτ-ι 
εὐδαίμον-α εὔδαιμον | ἄχαριν ἄχαρι 

εὔδαιμον ἄ 


. εὐδαίμον-ες εὐδαίμον-α | ἀχάριτ-ες ἀχάριτ-α 
εὐδαιμόν-ων ἀχαρίτ-ων 

: εὐδαίμο-σι ἀχάρι-σι 

.  εὐδαίμον-ας εὐδαίμον-α  ἀχάριτ-ας ἀχάριτ-α 


εὐδαίμον-ε ἀχάριτ-ε 
εὐδαιμόν-οιν ἀχαρίτ-οιν 


148 The accent is recessive. Stems in -ἰτ and -6 follow the rule 
in 115. For ἄχαρι see 40. 


149 COMPARATIVES IN -ὧν 


βελτῖον- better 


; Ν, 
βελτίων βέλτιον 
βελτίον-ος 
; Behttov-t be 
βελτῖον-α, βελτίω βέλτῖον 
βέλτῖον 


Plur. ΝΟΥ. βελτίον-ες, βελτίους βελτίον-α, βελτίω 
| βελττόν-ὡν 
βελτίο-σι 

.] βελτίον-ας, βελτίους βελτίον-α, βελτίω 


βελτίον-ε 
βελτιόν-οιν 


40 


NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 


150 The contracted forms are from a stem in -oo, the o disap- 


151 


152 


153 


pearing between vowels: βελτίο(σ)α, βελτίω (55 a). 


The 


accusative plural in -ovs is borrowed from the nominative. 
The accent is recessive. 


STEMS IN -eo 


cader-, plain 


εὐηθεσ-, svmple-minded 


M. F. Ν᾿; ΜΝ. F. Ν, 
Sing. Ν. σαφής σαφές εὐήθης εὔηθες 
χ. σαφοῦς εὐήθους 
D. σαφεῖ εὐήθει 
A.| σαφῆ σαφές εὐήθη εὔηθες 
ἡ σαφές εὔηθες 
Plur. N. V.| σαφεῖς σαφῆ εὐήθεις εὐήθη 
α. σαφῶν εὐήθων 
1); σαφέσι εὐήθεσι 
A.| σαφεῖς σαφῆ εὐήθεις εὐήθη 


a. In the nominative singular -εσ becomes -ys in the mascu- 
line and feminine, but remains -es in the neuter (cp. γένος, 
124, 125 a). The o disappears between vowels (55 a) and 
contractions are regular (29 a, ὁ, ἃ, e): σαφοῦς from σαφέος, 
σαφῆ from σαφέα, σαφεῖς from cadées, σαφῶν from σαφέων. In 
the accusative plural cadets is borrowed from the nominative. 
(Cp. 150.) 

Ὁ. But if -eo follows a vowel, -éa usually contracts to -ἃ 
instead of -7: ἐνδεής needy, (ἐνδεέα) ἐνδεᾶ, and εὐκλεής famous, 
(εὐκλεέα) εὐκλεᾶ. 


a. The accent, if it is not on the ultima, is recessive, 
even in contract forms. 


Ὁ. But not in the neuter forms in -ddes and -ῆρες : εὐῶδες 
fragrant, θηριῶδες animal, ποδῆρες reaching to the feet. 


CONSONANT DECLENSIONS: ADJECTIVES 47 


154 Names like Σωκράτης, Περικλῆς, Διογένης (127) were origi- 


155 


156 


nally adjectives of this class. 
trireme. 


So, too, the noun τριήρης 


Many adjectives whose masculine and neuter are of 
the consonant declension have a separate feminine 
in the a-declension. ‘The feminine singular always 
has short -a in the nominative, accusative, and voca- 
tive singular. (If the masculine and neuter are of 
the o-declension, the feminine always has a or ἡ: 
see 77 a.) 


ADJECTIVES OF THREE ENDINGS: STEMS IN -αν 


pedav-, μελαινᾶ- black 


- 


ποτα 


NS 
G. 
D. 
Ἂν 
Le 
Ve 
αἱ 
D. 
A. 
A. 
D. 


M. 
μέλας 
μέλαν-ος 
μέλαν-ι 
μέλαν-α 
μέλαν 


μελάν-ων 
μέλα-σι 
μέλαν-ας 


μέλαν-ε 
μελάν-οιν 


F. 
μέλαινα 
μελαίνης 
μελαίνῃ 
μέλαιναν 
μέλαινα 


μέλαιναι 
μελαινῶν 
μελαίναις 
μελαίνας 


μελαίνα 
μελαίναιν 


157 a. For μέλας and μέλασι see 51 a and d. 


Ὁ. The feminine stem μελαινᾶ- is for μελανιᾶ- (56 b). 


N. 
μέλαν 
μέλαν-ος 
μέλαν-ι 
μέλαν 
μέλαν 


μέλαν-ες 


μέλαν-α 
μελάν-ων 
μέλα-σι 
μέλαν-α 


μέλαν-ε 
μελάν-οιν 


The 


stem repev- tender, makes τέρην, τέρεινα, τέρεν, ete. 


48 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 


158 STEMS IN -v 


TAXV-, TAXEG- Swift 


M. F, N. 
TAX VU-S ταχεῖα ταχύ 
ταχέ-ος ταχείας ταχέ-ος 
ταχεῖ ταχείᾳ ταχεῖ 
ταχύ-ν ταχεῖαν ταχύ 
ταχύ ταχεῖα ταχύ 
ταχεῖς ταχεῖαι ταχέ-α 
ταχέ-ων ταχειῶν ταχέ-ων 
ταχέ-σι ταχείαις ταχέ-σι 
ταχεῖς ταχείας ταχέ-α 
ταχέ-ε ταχεία ταχέ-ε 
ταχέ-οιν ταχείαιν ταχέο-οιν. 


159 a. Stem and endings combine as in πῆχυς and ἄστυ (180, 131); 


160 


but -ea does not contract, and the accent is on the -v or its 
representative (e or εἰ). 
Ὁ. In accent all adjectives of this class are like ταχύς 
except θῆλυς, θήλεια, θῆλυ female, feminine, 
ἥμισυς, ἡμίσεια, ἥμισυ half, 
and some compounds, of two endings, as δίπηχυς two cubits 


long. 
STEMS IN -avt 


TavT-, πᾶσᾶ- every, all 


Puur. M. F, Ν. 
πάντ-ες πᾶσαι 


Ν. ite N. 


.| πᾶς πᾶσα πᾶν πάντ-α 


£ , ΄ - A , 
.| TAVT-6S πάσης παντ-ός πάντων πᾶσῶν πάντ-ων 


4 ae 
TACQALS TTACL 

, δ τς ᾿ 
παντ-ας πάα σὰς πάαντ-α. 


Zz A 
.| παντί πάσῃ παντ-ί πᾶσι 


.| πάνττα πᾶσαν πᾶν 


CONSONANT DECLENSIONS: ADJECTIVES 49 


161 a. For sound-changes see γίγας (121, 122 a); but ἃ in πᾶν is 


Ὁ. The accent of πᾶς is irregular, (1) in that πᾶς and πᾶν 
take the circumflex, (2) in that πάντων and πᾶσι do not fol- 
low 101, while παντός and παντί do. 


162 a. Compounds of πᾶς are regular: amas, ἅπᾶσα, 


162 


ἅπαν and σύμπᾶς, σύμπᾶσα, σύμπαν. 
b. Like these are declined participial stems in -αντ: 


’ - - ~ 
TAVTAS, TAVTATA, παῦσαν, 
παύσαντ-ος, TavTaons, etc. 
ε εἔ ε “A e 4 
ἱστᾶς, ἱστᾶσα, LOTAY, 

ε 4 e εὖ 
ἱἰσταντ-ος, ἱστᾶσης, ete. 

.Ζ A , 
στᾶς, στᾶσα, OTA, 

, «ὅ 
OTAVT-0S, στᾶσης, etc. 


ADJECTIVE STEMS IN -evr 
χαριεντ-, χαριεσσᾶ- graceful, gracious 


M. N. 


χαρίεις χαρίεσσα χαρίεν 
χαρίενττ-ος σχαριέσσης χαρίεντ-ος 
χαρίενττι 5 χαριέσσῃ χαρίεντ-ι 
χαρίεντα χαρίεσσαν χαρίεν 


χαρίεντ-ες χαρίεσσαι χαρίεντα 
χαριένττων χαριεσσῶὼν χαριέντ-ων 
χαρίεσι χαριέσσαις χαρίεσι 
Xaplevt-as χαριέσσᾶς χαρίεντ-α 


Xaplevt-e ἀχαριέσσᾶ χαρίεντ-ε 
χαριέντοοιν χαριέσσαιν χαριέντ-οιν 


164 


165 


50 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 


a. For χαρίεις from χαριε(ντ)-ς see 53 and 28 Ὁ; but χαρίεσι 
from χαριε(τ)σι and χαρίεσσα from χαριετια show a shorter 
stem form without v. 

Ὁ. But participial stems in -evr make -είς, -εἶσα, -€v, and in 
the dative plural ELC L, for -e(vT)s, -εἰντ)σα, -εν(τ), and -ε(ντ)σι. 
Thus: 


PARTICIPIAL STEMS IN -evr 
τιθεντ-, τιθεισᾶ- pulling 


τιθείς τιθεῖσα τιθέν 
τιθέντ-ος τιθείσης τιθέντ-ος 
τιθέντ-ι τιθείσῃ τιθέντ-ι 
τιθέντ-α τιθεῖσαν τιθέν 


τιθέντ-ες τιθεῖσαι τιθέντ-α 
τιθέντ-ων τιθεισῶν τιθέντ-ων 
τιθεῖσι τιθείσαις τιθεῖσι 
τιθέντ-ας τιθείσᾶς τιθέντ-α 


τιθέντ-ε τιθείσα τιθέντ-ε 
τιθέντ-οιν τιθείσαιν τιθέντ-οιν. 


166 Adjective stems in -ovr are declined like λέων (121, 


122 Ὁ), adding the neuter forms in -ον and -ovra and 
the feminine: ἑκών, ἑκοῦσα, ἑκόν willing, ἄκων, 
ἄκουσα, ὦκον unwilling. 

Participles in -οντ of the w-form (when the o be- 
longs to the tense-suffix, not to the verb-stem) are 
like ἄκων and éxdv: παύων, παύουσα, παῦον stopping, 
λιπών, λιποῦσα, λιπόν leaving. For participles in 
-ovt of the pu-form see 169. 


CONSONANT DECLENSIONS: ADJECTIVES 


167 


STEMS IN -ovrr 


akovt-, ἀκουσᾶ- unwilling 


ἄκων 
ἄκοντ-ος 
ἄκοντ-ι 
ἄκοντ-α 


ἄκοντ-ες 
ἀκόντ-ων 
ἄκουσι 
ἄκοντ-ας 


ἄκοντ-ε 
ἀκόντ-οιν 


ἄκουσα 
ἀκούσης 
ἀκούσῃ 
ἄκουσαν 


ἄκουσαι 
ἀκουσῶν 
ἀκούσαις 
ἀκούσᾶς 


ἀκούσᾶαᾶ 
ἀκούσαιν 


A) 
QKOV 


GKOVT-0S 
ἄκοντ-ι 
§) 

aKOV 


ἄκοντ-α 
ἀκόντ-ων 
ἄκουσι 
ἄκοντ-α 


ἄκοντ-ε 
ἀκόντ-οιν 


51 


168 a. Participles in -aovr-, -aovoa- contract to accented 
-w- throughout (29 ¢): 


- , 
τίμαων, 
τιμῶν, 


»} 
τιμαουσα, 


τιμάον, etc., become 


τιμῶσα, τιμῶν, ete. 


b. Participles 1 -εοντ-, -eovoa-, and in -οοντ-, 
-οουσᾶ-, contract to accented -ov- throughout, except 
that -ἔων and -dwy make -ov (29 a-c): 


φιλέων, φιλέουσα, φιλέον, etc., become 
φιλῶν, φιλοῦσα, φιλοῦν, ete. 
δηλόων, δηλόουσα, δηλόον, etc., become 
δηλῶν, δηλοῦσα, δηλοῦν, ete. 


169 Participles in -οντ- of the pe-form (when the o be- 
longs to the verb-stem) are like ὀδούς (121, 122 a), 


170 


171 


172 


52 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 


adding the neuter forms in -dv and -όντα and also 
the feminine: διδούς, διδοῦσα, διδόν giving. 


Participles in -vvr- (of the pu-form) are like 
δεικνύς, δεικνῦσα, δεικνύν pointing out, 
δεικνύνττος, δεικνύσης, δεικνύντ-ος, ete. 


a. For δεικνύς from δεικνυ(ντὴς and the dat. plu. δεικνῦσι 


see 53. 


Most perfect active participles are declined like εἰδώς 
knowing (172). The stem ends in -or, which be- 
comes -ws and -ός in the nominative singular; the 
feminine stem ends in -wa: πεπαυκώς, πεπαυκυῖα, 
πεπαυκός having stopt. 


PARTICIPIAL STEMS IN -or (PERFECTS) 


εἰδοτ-, εἰδυιᾶ- Anowing 


Ν. Ai Ν, 
IN AVe εἰδώς εἰδυῖα εἰδός 
G εἰδότ-ος eidvias εἰδότ-ος 
D. εἰδότ-ι εἰδυίᾳ εἰδότ-ι 
Α εἰδότ-α εἰδυῖαν εἰδός 


N. V. εἰδότ-ες εἰδυῖαι εἰδότ-α 
G εἰδότ-ων εἰδυιῶν εἰδότ-ων 
D. εἰδό-σι εἰδυίαις εἰδό-σι 


εἰδότ-ας εἰδυίᾶς εἰδότ-α 


εἰδότ-ε 
εἰδότ-οιν 


εἰδότ-ε eldvia 


εἰδότ-οιν εἰδυίαιν 


178 


174 


175 


Φ 


CONSONANT DECLENSIONS: ADJECTIVES δὲ 


~ 


A few perfect active participles (of pi-verbs) in -aws are con- 
tracted and form the feminine irregularly : 
ἑστώς, ἑστῶσα, ἑστός standing, 
ἑστῶτος, ἑστώσης, ἑστῶτος, etc. 


The neuter ἑστός retains the characteristic final syllable 
-os instead of becoming ἑστώς. More irregular is 


τεθνεώς, τεθνεῶσα, τεθνεός dead, 
τεθνεῶτος, τεθνεώσης, τεθνεῶτος, etc. 


Two common adjectives, μέγας and πολύς, have a 
shorter stem and irregular form in the nominative 
and accusative singular masculine and neuter only, 
but are otherwise regular in the vowel declension. 


Thus: 


peya-, peyado-, peyada- tall, great 
toXv-, πολλο-, πολλᾶ- much, plur. many 


M. iF N, 


Sing. N. μέγα-ς μεγάλη μέγα 
α. μεγάλου μεγάλης μεγάλου 
D. μεγάλῳ μεγάλῃ μεγάλῳ 
A. μέγα-ν μεγάλην μέγα 
Mo μέγα μεγάλη μέγα 


Plural regular 


Sing. N. πολύς πολλή πολύ 
G. πολλοῦ πολλῆς πολλοῦ 
D. πολλῷ ᾿ πολλῇ πολλῷ 
A. πολύ-ν πολλήν πολύ 
V. πολύ πολλή πολύ 


Plural regular | 


176 


177 


178 


54 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 


πρᾷος, πραεῖα, πρᾷον mild follows the o-declension in masculine 
and neuter, but makes the entire feminine, and sometimes 
other forms, from a stem in -v, like ταχύς (158). 


VII. CoMPARISON OF- ADJECTIVES 


Most adjectives form the comparative by adding 
-repos (-répa, -repov), the superlative by adding -raros 
(-τάτη, -τατον), to the masculine stem. Stems in -o 
with a short penult lengthen o to o: 


POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE 
δίκαιος (δικαιο-) Just, δικαιόττερος, δικαιό-τατος, 
Ξ' , se Ξ , = , 
μικρός (μῖκρο-) small, μὶκρότερος, μικρόττατος, 
πικρός (πικρο-) bitter, πικρόττεερος, πικρόττατος, 


πονηρός (movnpo-) bad, πονηρότερος, πονηρόττατος, 
σαφής (σαφεσ-) plain, σαφέσ-τερος, σαφέστ-τατος, 
εὐκλεής (εὐκλεεσ-) FAMOUS, εὐκλεέσ-τερος, εὐκλεέσ-τατος, 
μέλας (μελαν-) black, μελάν-τερος, μελάντ-τατος, 
γλυκύς (γλυκυ-) sweet, γλυκύτερος, γλυκύτατος, 
(πρέσβυς) (πρεσβυ-) old, πρεσβύτερος, πρεσβύττατος. 


But o-stems with a short penult: 


ἄξιος (ἀξιο-) worthy, ἀξιώτερος, ἀξιώτατος, 
νέος (νεο-) NEW, YOUNJ, γνεώτ-τερος, νεώττατος, 

’ 5 ’ , 
σοφός (codo-) wise, σοφώττερος, σοφώττατος. 


A few stems drop -o before -repos and -τατος: 


γεραιό-ς aged, yepat-TEpos, γεραΐτατος, 
παλαιό-ς old, ancient, παλαΐζτερος, παλαΐτατος, 
σχολαῖο-ς leisurely, σχολαίτερος, σχολαέΐξτατος, 


φίλο-ς dear, (φίλ-τερος poet.), φίλ-τατος. 


179 


180 


181 


COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES δῦ 


παλαιός makes also παλαιότερος, παλαιότατος. For 
φίλτερος prose writers use μᾶλλον φίλος (180). 


The endings -eo-repos, -eo-raros (in imitation of words 
like cadéo-repos) are added to stems in -ov: 


εὐδαίμων fortunate, εὐδαιμον-έστερος, εὐδαιμον-έστατος, 
σώφρων discreet, σωφρον-ἔστερος, σωφρον-ἔστατος. 


a, Some contracting stems in -oo are compared as if 
-repos and -raros were added to the nom. sing. mas. : 


ἁπλοῦς (amhoo-) single, ἁπλούσ-τερος, ἁπλούσ-τατος, 
εὔνους (evvoo-) kind, EVVOVT-TEPOS, εὐνούσ-τατος. 
b. Note also ἐρρωμένο-ς strong, ἐρρωμεν-έστερος, ἐρρωμεν-έστατος, 
with loss of -o, and χαρίεις, χαριέσ-τερος, χαριέσ-τατος, from the 
stem χαριετ-. (Cp. 164 a.) 
Comparatives and superlatives are often made by the 
adverbs μᾶλλον more and μάλιστα most or ἧττον less 
and ἥκιστα least, with the positive: μᾶλλον φίλος, 
more dear, dearer, μάλιστα φίλος, most dear, dearest, 
ἧττον φίλος less dear. 
Participles are compared only in this way. 


A few common adjectives form the comparative by 
adding -iwy (stem -iov, 149), the superlative by add- 
ing -ιστος (-ίστη, -vorov), to the root of the positive, 
or to a different form of the stem: 
κακός bad Kak-twy Worse, κάκε-ιστος worst 
αἰσχρός unseemly, αἰσχ-ΐων, αἴσχειστος, ὁ 

(Cp. τὸ αἶσχ-ος unseemliness, αἰσχ-ύνω shame) 
ἐχθρός hateful, hostile, ἐχθ-ΐων, ἔχθειστος, 

(Cp. ἔχθω hate, τὸ ἔχθος hatred } 


182 


56 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 


καλός beautiful, καλλ-ΐων, 


ἡδύς agreeable, ἡδ-ίων, 


ταχύς swift, θάἄσσων (θάττων), 


κάλλειστος, 
(Cp. τὸ κάλλος beauty) 


ἡδτιστος, 
(Cp. ἥδομαι be pleased) 


, 
TAY-LOTOS, 


(θάσσων is for ταχίων : see ὅθ ὁ and 47 ἃ) 


For the declension of these comparatives see 149. 


Several common adjectives are irregular, because of 
sound changes, or because words quite different have 


come to be grouped together : 


POSITIVE COMPARATIVE 


1. ἀγαθός good, ἀμείνων, 


βελτίων, 
κρείσσων (56 c), 


(Adar, poetic), 
2. κακός bad, κακίων, 
χείρων, 
ἥσσων (56 c), 
3. μέγας tall, μείζων (for 
large, μεγϊων), 
4, ὀλίγος little, ἐλάσσων (56 c), 
pl. few, μείων. 
πολύς much, πλείων, πλέον, 
many, 


Cr 


6. padios easy ῥάων, 


SUPERLATIVE 
ἄριστος brave, excel- 
lent, able, 
βέλτιστος virtuous, 
κράτιστος strong, 
supervor, 
(Cp. τὸ κράτος strength) 
(λῷστος, poetic). 
κάκιστος, 
χείριστος, 
(ἥκιστα, δᾶν., east). 


μέγιστος. 

3 ’ 
ἐλάχιστος, 
πλεῖστος. 


(Cp. πλέως, τὸ πλῆθος) 


ῥᾷστος. 


188 


184 


185 


186 


NUMERAL ADJECTIVES 57 


The following adjectives lack the positive : 
COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE 
(πρό before) πρότερος former, πρῶτος first. 
(ὑπέρ over, beyond) ὑπέρτερος higher, ὑπέρτατος, high- 
superior, est, supreme. — 
ὕστερος later, ὕστατος latest. 


Two superlatives, ἔσχατος farthest, extreme, and ὕπατος high- 
est, and a few others in poetry, contain an old ending -aros. 
πρῶτος is contracted from πρό-ατος. 


VIII. NuMERAL ADJECTIVES 


The cardinal and ordinal numbers are given in the 
table (188). } 

The notation in the second column is Byzantine, and now 

less used. ς΄ (abbreviation for or) takes the place of F (27) 
for siz; Ὁ (koppa) and A (sampi) are old letters retained for 
this purpose only. The symbols are combined by addition, 
the larger sum being written at the left: «A β΄ -Ξ 1902. 
The ordinal numbers, and the cardinal numbers from 
διάκόσιοι on, are adjectives of three endings. The 
other cardinals are indeclinable, except the first four, 
which are as follows : 


τεσσάρων 


τέσσαρσι 


ἃ. δύο (or δύω in poetry) sometimes has δυοῖν, 
ἄμφω both always has ἀμφοῖν, for the genitive and 
dative. 


188 
1 a 
2 β΄ 
9 Y 
4 δ΄ 
5 é 
6 - 
7 τ 
8 " 
9 θ΄ 
10 U 
11 ια΄ 
12 ιβ΄ 
18 ιΎ 
14 ιδ΄ 
15 ue 
16 us 
17 ιζ΄ 
18 un 
19 ιθ΄ 
20 κ΄ 
90 Xx 
40 » 
50 ν' 
60 ξ' 
70 ο΄ 
80 π΄ 
90 ro 
100 p 
200 σ΄ 
300 τ΄ 
400 v 
500 y 
600 x 
700 ψ' 
800 wo 
900 wD 
1000 a 
2000 β 
3000 Υ 
10000 ᾿ 


CARDINAL 


εἶ5, μία, ἕν one 
δύο 

τρεῖς, τρία 
τέσσαρες, τέσσαρα 
πέντε 

ἐξ 

ἑπτά 

> , 

ὀκτώ 

> , 

ἐννέα, 

δέκα 

ἕνδεκα, 

δώδεκα 

τρεῖς καὶ δέκα 
τέσσαρες καὶ δέκα 
πεντεκαίδεκα 

ε 

ἑκκαίδεκα 
ἑπτακαίδεκα 
ὀκτωκαίδεκα 
ἐννεακαίδεκα 


εἴκοσι 
τριάκοντα 
τεσσαράκοντα 
πεντήκοντα 
tes 
ἑξήκοντα 
ἑβδομήκοντα 
ὀγδοήκοντα 
ἐνενήκοντα 
ἑκατόν 
διᾶκόσιοι 
τριᾶκόσιοι 
τετρακόσιοι 
πεντακόσιοι 
ε , 
ἑξακόσιοι 
ἑπτακόσιοι 
ὀκτακόσιοι 
ἐνακόσιοι 
χΐἴλιοι 
δισχΐλιοι 

£ 
τρισχϊλιοι 
μύριοι 


NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 


ORDINAL 


πρῶτος first 
δεύτερος 
τρίτος 
τέταρτος 
πέμπτος 
ἕκτος 
ἕβδομος 
ὄγδοος 
ἔνατος 
ϑέκατος 


ἑνδέκατος 

δωδέκατος 

τρίτος καὶ δέκατος 
τέταρτος καὶ δέκατος 
πεντεκαιδέκατος 
ἑκκαιδέκατος 
ἑπτακαιδέκατος 
ὀκτωκαιδέκατος 
ἐννεακαιδέκατος 


εἰκοστός 
τριᾶκοστός 
τεσσαρακοστός 
πεντηκοστός 
ἑξηκοστός 
ἑβδομηκοστός 
ὀγδοηκοστός 
ἐνενηκοστός 


ἑκατοστός 
διᾶακοσιοστός 
τριᾶκοσιοστός 
τετρακοσιοστός 
πεντακοσιοστός 
ἑξακοσιοστός 
ἑπτακοσιοστός 
ὀκτακοσιοστός 
ἐνακοσιοστός 


χιλιοστός 
δισχτλιοστός 
τρισχϊλιοστός 
μύριοστός 


189 


190 


191 


192 


193 


NUMERAL ADJECTIVES 59 


From οὐδὲ εἷς and μηδὲ εἷς not even one are formed 
the general negatives οὐδείς, μηδείς no one, declined : 


ovdeis οὐδεμία οὐδέν Plur. οὐδένες 
οὐδενός οὐδεμιᾶς οὐδενός οὐδενῶν 
οὐδενί οὐδεμιᾷ οὐδενί οὐδέσι 
οὐδένα οὐδεμίαν οὐδέν οὐδένας 


a. Note the change of accent from εἷς to οὐδείς. 
b. For οὔτις, μήτις see 224 a. 


When units, tens, etc., are combined, καί may be omitted if 
the larger number precedes, otherwise not. Thus 325 is 


, Ν »” \ - ’ 
πέντε και εἰκοσι και τριακοσιοῖ, 

- , Ν Υ᾿, 3, / 
OY τριακόσιοι και ELKOOL καὶ πέντε; 


- / μά 4 
OF τριᾶκόσιοι εἰκοσι πέντε. 


So with ordinals also. 


Multiple adjectives are formed in -πλοῦς -fold: 
διπλοῦς twofold, πολλαπλοῦς manifold, etc. (90, 87) ; 


Also in -πλάσιος : διπλάσιος twice as great or 
(plural) as many, πολλαπλάσιος Many times as great 
or many. 


Abstract and collective nouns of number are formed in 
-ds (stem -ad), several of which English has adopted : 


ἡ μονάς, μονάδος unity, monad, δεκάς the number ten, decad, 
ἡ δυάς, δυάδος pair, duality, decade, 
ἡ τριάς, τριάδος trinity, triad, μυριάς myriad, 

ἑκατὸν μυριάδες α million. 


For numeral adverbs, see 232, 233. 
When it means cowntless, a great many, μύριοι is often printed 


μῦρίοι : in a related sense a singular μύριος is found: ἐν πενίᾷ 
popia in the depths of poverty. 


60 PRONOUNS 


B. PRONOUNS 


194 PERSONAL PRONOUNS 


First Person! SECOND PERSON | THutrRpD PERSON 


ov thou, you 

σοῦ, σου οὗ his, of him, ete. 
σοί, σοι ὶ 

σέ, σε 


ἡμεῖς we | ὑμεῖς you 
ἡμῶν ὑμῶν 


« a La) 


ἡμῖν 


e A Lal 


. | ἡμᾶς μ 


(vd) 
νῷν) (σφῷν) 


195 a. The enclitic forms (19 a) are used when the pronoun is 
without emphasis; the corresponding accented forms are em- 
phatie. 

b. But the accented forms are regularly used with prepo- 
sitions, though we find πρός pe, πρός σε, and some others. 

6. For stronger emphasis the enclitic ye is added to some 
forms ; in ἔγωγε, ἔμοιγε the accent is drawn back. 


196 Poets use ἡμίν, ὑμίν, less often ἡμάς, ὑμάς, for metrical con- 
venience ; also the old forms σέθεν for σοῦ, ἕθεν for οὗ, νιν, or 
σφε for the acc. sing. and plu. of the third person, and σφιν 
for σφίσι. ‘The dual forms are confined to poetry. 


197 The personal pronoun of the third person is rare in Attic 
prose ; of and σφίσι occur oftenest, and are reflexive (200). 
In its place is used αὐτός in the oblique cases. 


198 


199 


200 


201 


202 


PRONOUNS 61 


Αὐτός, αὐτή, αὐτό(ν) is declined like σοφός (76), ex- 
cept that there is no vocative and the neuter singular 
nominative and accusative drops -v. Only the phrase 
τὸ αὐτό(ν) often retains -ν. 
Αὐτός has three meanings : 

a. Standing alone in the oblique cases, him, her, tt, 
them, ete. (197). 

b. Standing after the article, same, Lat. idem. 

6. Without the article, agreeing in case with a noun 
or pronoun, or standing alone in the nominative, se/f, 
Lat. apse. 


Reflexive pronouns (referring back to the subject) are 
made by adding αὐτός to the personal pronouns ; 
they are needed only in oblique cases. (See 203.) 


The indefinite ἄλλος, ἄλλη, ἄλλο other (Lat. alius, 
alia, aliud), used both adjectively and substantively, 
is declined like αὐτός (198). 


The reciprocal pronoun, meaning one another, each 
other, is formed from ἄλλος by doubling the stem. 
It is not needed in the singular nor in the nomina- 
tive : 


M. ", Ν. 
ἀλλήλων ἀλλήλων ἀλλήλων 
ἀλλήλοις ἀλλήλαις ἀλλήλοις 


A. | ἀλλήλους ἀλλήλᾶς ἄλληλα 
θα. α. Ὁ. 1 ἀλλήλοιν ἀλλήλαιν ἀλλήλοιν 
Α., ἀλλήλω ἀλλήλᾶ ἀλλήλω | 


62 PRONOUNS 


203 | First Person Sreconp PERSON 


Sing. (ἃ. ἐμαυτοῦ, -τῆς of σεαυτοῦ, -τῆς of thy- 


myself, ete. self, ete. 
D. ἐμαυτῷ, -τῇ σεαυτῷ, -τῇ 
A. ἐμαυτόν, -τήν σεαυτόν, -τήν 


Plur. G. | ἡμῶν αὐτῶν of our- | ὑμῶν αὐτῶν of your- 


selwes, ete. selves, ete. 
D. ἡμῖν αὐτοῖς, -tals ὑμῖν αὐτοῖς, -ταῖς 
e κα » ’ a4 Ley > ’ 4 
A. ἡμᾶς αὐτούς, -Tas ὑμᾶς αὐτούς, -TAS 


THIRD PERSON 


Sing. G.| ἑαυτοῦ, -τῆς of himself, of herself, etc. 
D.| ἑαυτῷ, -τῇ 
Α. ἑαυτόν, -τήν 


Plur. G. | σφῶν αὐτῶν or ἑαυτῶν of themselves, ete. 
D. | σφίσιν αὐτοῖς, -tats or ἑαυτοῖς, -ταῖς 

A > , J ς ’ « , 

A. σφᾶς αὐτούς, -Tas or ἑαυτούς, -τὰς, -τά 


a. Instead of σεαυτοῦ, ete., and ἑαυτοῦ, ete. the 
contracted forms σαυτοῦ and αὑτοῦ, etc., are also used. 


204 Possessive pronouns, formed from the personal pro- 


nouns, are 

ἐμός, -ἡ, τόν MY, MINE, ἡμέτερος, -ἃ, -ον OUT, 

σός, σή, σόν, thy, thine, ὑμέτερος, -a, τον, YOUr, 
your, YOurs. 


Also in poetry 
os, 7, ὅν his, its, her σφέτερος, -a, -ov their, theirs, 
apos (OY ads), -ἡ, -dv our (sometimes my). 


a. σφέτερος Occurs in prose in a reflexive sense, their own. 


205 


206 


207 


208 


209 


PRONOUNS 63 


‘DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 


In early Greek ὁ, ἡ, τό, the later article (61), was 
a demonstrative pronoun, this, that, he, tt, ete.; in 
Attic this force is retained in a few phrases (see 549). 
When thus used, some print 6, 7, ot, αἵ with the 
acute—which then always becomes grave (15). 


a. In poetry ὃ, }, 7d is also used as a relative pronoun. 


Ὅδε, ἥδε, τόδε this (Lat. hic) is ὁ, ἡ, τό with the en. 


clitic syllable -de. For declension see 209. For the 
accent of ὅδε, ἥδε, οἵδε, aide see 21'c and ἃ. 


Οὗτος, αὕτη, τοῦτο this, that (Lat. 2s, ἐ{{6) is also formed 
from ὁ, 7, τό, and hence begins with 7 or the rough 
breathing in the same places (209). 


᾿Εκεῖνος, ἐκείνη, ἐκεῖνο that yonder (in poetry also 


κεῖνος, κείνη, κεῖνο) 15 declined like αὐτός (198). 


@ « A 
οὗτος αὕτη τοῦτο 
τούτου ταύτης τούτου 
τούτῳ ταύτῃ τούτῳ 
t 
τοῦτον ταύτην τοῦτο 


ὅδε ἥδε τόδε 
τοῦδε τῆσδε τοῦδε 
τῷδε τῇδε τῷδε 
τόνδε τήνδε τόδε 


Sing. N. 


οὗτοι αὗται ταῦτα 
τούτων τούτων τούτων 
τούτοις ταύταις τούτοις 
τούτους TAVTAS ταῦτα 


olde αἵδε τάδε 
τῶνδε τῶνδε τῶνδε 
τοῖσδε ταῖσδε τοῖσδε 
, P , 
τούσδε τᾶσδε τάδε 


Plur. 


τούτω τούτω τούτω 


τούτοιν τούτοιν τούτοιν 


τώδε τώδε τώδε 
τοῖνδε τοῖνδε τοῖνδε 


a, For τοῖσιδε, ταῖσιδε, etc., cp. 64 and 69 ο. 


210 


211 


212 


213 


64 PRONOUNS 


To all forms of ὅδε and οὗτος the syllable -ἴ is often 
added, sometimes also to other demonstratives, to 
point to something still more clearly as near at hand. 
This -ἔ always takes the accent; before it -ε, -o, and 
-a are lost: ὁδί, οὑτοσί this man here. So τουτουΐ, 
ταυτησί, τουτΐ, ταυτί, TOOL, οὑτοιΐ, τοιουτονΐ. 
With od€ go 
τοιόσδε, τοιᾶἄδε, τοιόνδε SUCh, Lat. talis (of quality) ; 
τοσόσδε, τοσήδε, τοσόνδε SO much, so great (Lat. 
tantus, pl. so many, Lat. tot; of this size or 
number ; 
τηλικόσδε, τηλικήδε, τηλικόνδε 80 great, so old. 
a. Poets often use the simpler forms without -δὲ: τοῖος, -a, 
τον ; τόσος, -y, τον ; τηλίκος, -ἡ, τον. 
With οὗτος go 
τοιοῦτος, τοιαύτη, τοιοῦτο(ν) talis; 
τοσοῦτος, τοσαύτη, τοσοῦτο(ν) tantus, pl. tot; 
τηλικοῦτος, τηλικαύτη, τηλικοῦτο(ν) 80 great or old. 


RELATIVE PRONOUNS 


In early Greek os, 7, 6 was demonstrative, like 6, ἡ, 
76 (205); in Attic it retains this force in a few phrases 
(560), but is commonly relative, meaning who, which, 
that. 'The forms are © 


Plur, N. 


G. Ὁ. οἷν (Fem. rarely a, atv) 


215 


216 


, 217 


218 


PRONOUNS 65 


To the demonstratives in 211, 212 correspond the rela- 


tives 


οἷος, ota, οἷον of which kind, | such| as, qualis (of 
quality) ; 

ὅσος, ὅση, ὅσον Of which size or number, [as great 
or many | as, quantus or quot (of quantity) ; 

ἡλίκος, ἡλίκη, ἡλίκον of which age or value. 


The enclitic particle -rep added to a relative pronoun (or 
adverb; see 236) makes more distinct the reference to the 


antecedent, which is thereby emphasized: ὅπερ which very 


thing, the very thing which, ὥσπερ just as: θέλω ἅπερ σύ I wish 
the very things that you do (Εἰ. 17. 991). 


INTERROGATIVE AND INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 


The interrogative pronoun τίς, τί who? what? and 
the indefinite pronoun τις, τι some one, something, 
any one, anything, are spelt alike but differ in accent 
(219). ᾿ 

Interrogative ris never changes the acute to the 
grave (15 and a); forms of two syllables accent the 
first. 

Indefinite τὰς is enclitic (19 Ὁ); disyllabic forms 
that require an accent (20 ἃ) have it on the ultima. 

a. The poetic form drra is not enclitic. 


The enclitic τις added to ὅς makes the indefinite or 
general relative pronoun ὅστις, ἥτις, ὅτι any one 
who, anything which, whoever, etc. (220). For the 
accent see 21 a, d. 

In a similar way τις following other relatives (215, 


222) makes their reference more general or inclusive. 
5 


219 


220 


221 


66 PRONOUNS 


INTERROGATIVE INDEFINITE 


τίς τί τις τι 


τίνος, τοῦ τινος, του 
τίνι, τῷ τινι, τῷ 
τίνα τί τινα τι 


τίνες τίνα τινες τινα (ἄττα) 
τίνων τινων 
τίσι τισι 

τίνας τίνα τινας τινα (ἄττα) 
τίνε τινε 


τίνοιν τινοιν 
ee 
Sing. N. ὅστις ἥτις ὅτι 
= [, iy oy 
G. οὗτινος, ὅτου NoTLVOS οὗτινος, ὅτου 
@ τ φ @ ¥ 
D. ᾧτινι, ὅτῳ ἥτινι ᾧτινι, ὅτῳ 
Α. ὅντινα ἥντινα ὅτι 
ἘΙΣΙΝῚ οἵτινες αἵτινες ἅτινα, ἅττα 
a@ ry @ a Ψ 
x ὧντινων, ὅτων WVTLVOV ὧντινων, ὅτων 
“Ὁ « “Ὁ .« 
7). οἷστισι, ὅτοις αἷστισι οἷστισι, ὅτοις 
Α. οὕστινας ἅστινας ἅτινα, ἅττα 
Du. Ν. A. ὥτινε ὥτινε ὥτινε 
@ Ὁ @ 
OLVTLVOLV OLVTLVOLV οἷντινοιν 


a. The shorter forms ὅτου, ὅτῳ, ἅττα, ὅτων, ὅτοις, espe- 
cially ὅτου and ὅτῳ, are more common than the cor. 
responding trisyllabic forms. 

b. The neuter ὅτι is usually printed 6 m or 


222 


— 223 


224 


PRONOUNS 67 


ὅ, τι to distinguish it from the conjunction ὅτι that, 
because, which is merely a special use of the same 
word. 

6. The addition of οὖν makes the most inclusive 
general pronoun, with loss of all relative or interroga- 
tive force: ὁστισοῦν any one whatever, ὁτιοῦν any- 
thing whatever ; acc. ὁντινοῦν, ἡντινοῦν, ete. 


Other interrogative pronouns, and the corresponding 
indefinite or general relatives (made by prefixing 
the relative stem 6-), are: 


INTERROGATIVES 


πότερος which (of two) ? 


ποῖος of what sort ? 

πόσος how large? pl. how 
many ? 

πηλίκος how great? how 
old ? 


GENERAL RELATIVES 
ὁπότερος Whichever (of 
two), 
ὁποῖος Of whatever sort, 
ὁπόσος Of whatever size 
(number), 
ὁπηλίκος of whatever age 
or 8726. 


All indefinite or general relative words (sometimes 
also the simple relatives) are used as indirect inter- 
rogatives. 


The general negative pronouns οὐδείς and μηδείς have 
been given in 189. 

So from οὐδ᾽ (μηδ᾽) ἕτερος we have οὐδέτερος and 
μηδέτερος neither of the two. 

ἃ. Poets use οὔτις and μήτις for οὐδείς and μηδείς ; the 
neuter forms οὔτι and μήτι are used also in prose as adverbs 
(230), not at all. 


68 PRONOUNS 


225 The indefinite ὁ (ἡ, τὸ) δεῖνα so-and-so, what's-his- 
name, is used as indeclinable, and is also declined : 


Sing. N. ὁ δεῖνα Plu. N. ot detves 
G. τοῦ δεῖνος τ 64, τῶν δείνων 
D. τῷ δεῖνι D, —— 
A. τὸν δεῖνα Α. τοὺς δεῖνας 


226 The relations of form and meaning between the cor. 
relative pronouns are shown in the table (227) ; forms 
in parenthesis are poetic or rare. 


227 CORRELATIVE PRONOUNS 


INTERROGA- 
RELATIVE TIVE INDEFINITE 


Specific) | (Direct and} (pneliti 
(Specific) Tadieees (Enclitic) 


GENERAL 
Ret., Inprir. 
INTERROG., 


DEMONSTRATIVE 


(ὁ, ὅς) ὅδε hic (δ) ὅς τίς τις ὅστις 
οὗτος is, 1116 who who ? some one, | whoever, 
ἐκεῖνος {116 any one any one who 


(τοῖος) οἷος ποῖος (ποιοςὺ ὁποῖος 


A " 9 & 
τοιοῦτος sort ! sort sort 


] 

τοιόσδε { talis qualis of what of some of whatever 
| 
J 


(τόσος) ὅσος πόσος (ποσοςὺ ὁπόσος 
τοσόσδε sii y quantus, | how large ? | of some ‘of whatever 
1D 4 4 
a 9 
τοσοῦτος | quot how many ? | size size, number 


(τηλίκος) | 5οοἱά, ἡλίκος πηλίκος (πηλίκος) ὁπηλίκος 
τηλικόσδε ᾿ 1m- | of which | of what of some of whatever 


or- | age age ? age age 


τηλικοῦτος | fant 


ἕτερος alter πότερος (πότερος) ὁπότερος 
ἑκάτερος euch of two uter ? whichever 


ADVERBS 69 


C. ADVERBS 


228 Several endings denoting place are much like case- 
endings ; some words formed with them may be taken 
either as adverbs or as nouns. ‘The endings are 


-t, τθι, -σι at or in, for the place where (locative) ; 
-θεν from, for the place whence (ablative) ; 
-δε, -σε, -Ce to or toward, for the place whither. 


The ending -δὲ is added to the accusative (ep. 
accusative of limit, 583); -ζε seems to be for -σδε, -de 
being added to the accusative plural ; -. may be re- 
garded as forming a locative singular, -ov a locative 


plural, 


οἴκοι (14a) at οἴκοθεν from οἴκαδε homeward, 
home, home, 
ἄλλοθι elsewhere, ἄλλοθεν from ἄλλοσε else: 
elsewhere, whither, 
᾿Αθήνησι in ᾿Αθήνηθεν from ᾿Αθήνᾶαζε to 
Athens, Athens, Athens, 
Ἐλευσῖνι at ᾿Ελευσινόθεν ᾿Ἐλευσῖνάδε to 
Kleusis, from Lleusis, Kleusis, 
ἑτέρωθι on the ἑτέρωθεν from ἑτέρωσε to the 
other side, the other side, other side, 
πάντοθεν from πάντοσε in all 
every side, directions, 
θύρασι at the θύραθεν from θύραζε out of 
doors, . without, doors, 
ἔνδοθι, ἔνδον ἔνδοθεν from 


within, within, 


229 


230 


231 


70 ADVERBS 
xapat on the χαμᾶθεν from χαμᾶζε to the 
ground, the ground, ground. 


a. Several adverbs of the place where end in -ov: 


πανταχοῦ every- πανταχόθεν from πανταχόσε in all 


where, everywhere, directions, 
αὐτοῦ in the very αὐτόθεν from the αὐτόσε to the very 
place, very place, place. 


Adverbs of manner in -ws are made from many adjec- 
tives and some participles and pronouns ; they are like 
the genitive plural masculine, with -s in place of -v: 


σοφός wise, gen. pl. σοφῶν, σοφῶς wisely, 
δίκαιος just, δικαίων, δικαίως justly, 
ἀληθής true, ἀληθῶν, ἀληθῶς truly, 
ἡδύς pleasant, ἡδέων, ἡδέως pleasantly, 
εἰκώς like, εἰκότων, εἰκότως naturally, 
τεταγμένος τεταγμένων, τεταγμένως IN AN 
arranged, orderly way. 


For many adjectives the neuter accusative, singular or 
plural, is used as an adverb: πολύ much, πολλά many 
times, μικρόν a little, μέγα and μεγάλα greatly, πρῶτον 
and πρῶτα first. 


Some common adverbs do not readily fall into classes. Thus 
the adverb for ἀγαθός is εὖ well; from ταχύς the old adverb 
τάχα quickly means in prose perhaps, while ταχέως or ταχύ 
means quickly; from several prepositions are made adverbs in 
τω: ἄνω above, upward, κάτω below, ἔσω within, ἔξω outside, 
πρόσω forward, πόρρω, πόρσω farther on, afar. Other adverbial 
endings are -ddv, -dnv, -στί, -εἰ: ἔνδον within, στοιχηδόν in rows, 
κρύβδην secretly, νεωστί lately, ἑλληνιστί in Greek, ἀμαχεί with- 
out fighting, πανδημεί with full levy. 


ADVERBS 11 


232 Adverbs of number for the first three cardinal num- 


233 


234 


235 


bers are ἅπαξ once, dis twice, τρίς thrice. For higher 
numbers the adverbs end in -άκις ; τετράκις four 
times, πεντάκις five times, ὀκτάκις eight times, ἐνάκις 
nine tumes, εἰκοσάκις twenty times, ἑκατοντάκις, etc. 

On the same model are made others, like πολλάκις 
often from πολύς, ὀλιγάκις a few times, seldom, πλεον- 
ἄκις more times, ὁσάκις as often as. 


Other adverbs of number, commonly denoting division, are 
μοναχῇ (μόνος, μοναχός) singly, in one way only, δίχα and διχῇ 
in two parts, doubly, τρίχα and τριχῇ in three parts, triply, 
πολλαχῇ 12 MANY WAYS, πανταχῇ in every Way. 


Adverbs derived from adjectives, and some others, 
are compared like adjectives; for the comparative the 
neuter accusative singular is used, for the superlative 
the neuter accusative plural : 


POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE 
σοφῶς wisely, σοφώτερον, σοφώτατα, 
σαφῶς clearly, σαφέστερον, σαφέστατα, 
ἡδέως pleasantly, ἥδιον, ἥδιστα, 
πολύ much, πλέον, πλεῖστα, 
ταχέως quickly, θᾶττον, τάχιστα, 
εὖ well, ἄμεινον, better, ἄριστα, best, 
μάλα very, μᾶλλον more, rather, μάλιστα most. 


Some adverbs of place have the comparative and 
superlative in -w: 
» 5 ’' 53 ϑ 
ανω above, AVWTEPW, AVWTATO, 
ἐγγύς. near, ἐγγυτέρω, ἐγγυτάτω. 
ἐγγύτερον, 


«τ 
bo 


ADVERBS 


236 CORRELATIVE ADVERBS 


DEMONSTRATIVE 


(ἔνθα here) 
ἐνθάδε here 
ἐνταῦθα there 
ἐκεῖ yonder 


(ἔνθεν thence) 
ἐνθένδε thence 
ἐντεῦθεν from here 
ἐκεῖθεν from yonder 


(ἔνθα hither) 
ἐνθάδε Aither 
ἐνταῦθα ee or 
(ἐνταυθοῖ) thither 
ἐκεῖσε thither 


TOTE then 
νῦν now 


τηνικάδε \ just 


τηνικαῦτα.) then 


(as) 80, thus 

a . . 
ὧδε \ in this 
oUTw(s)) way 
ἐκείνως in that way 


RELA- 
TIVE 
(Specific) 


m 
ov 
where 


ἔνθα 
where 


whence 


ἔνθεν 
whence 


Ὁ 
οι 
whither 


ἔνθα 
whither 


OTE 
when 


ἡνίκα 
just when 


ὡς 


as, how 


INTERROG- 
ATIVE 


(Direct 
and Ind.) 


ποῦ 
where ? 


πόθεν 
whence ? 


ποῖ 
whither ? 


πότε 


when ? 


πηνίκα 
just when ? 
TOS 

how ? 


(τῇ) | in this or 
τῇδε that direc- 
ταύτῃ͵ tion or way 


a 
q 

in which 
Uay 


“ 
πῃ 
in what 
way ? 


INDEFI- 
NITE 


> 


GENERAL 
RELATIVE, 
INDIRECT 


(Enclitic)| [yreRRoGATIVE 


που 


some- 
where 


ποθεν 


from 
some- 
where 


TTOL 
to some 
place 


TTOTE 
sometime 


πὼς 
somehow 


TY 
in some 
way 


eo 

OTTOU 
wherever, 
where 


ὁπόθεν 


whencesoever, 
whence 


ὅτπτοι 


whithersoever, 
whither 


ὁπότε 
whenever, when 


ὁπηνίκα 
just when 


ὅπως 
how 


ὅπῃ 
in which way 


237 


238 


239 


240 


241 


242 


VERBS 15 


In the table (286) the common adverbs from pro- 
nominal stems, and some others of like significance, 
are arranged so as to show their relations of form and 
meaning. ‘Those in parenthesis are poetic or much 
less usual. 


In prose ἔνθα and ἔνθεν are mostly relative; but they are de- 
monstrative with pe δέ, and in the phrases ἔνθα καὶ ἔνθα 
here and there, hither and thither, ἔνθεν καὶ ἔνθεν from this 
side and that, and often in poetry. 


Like ὅς (214) ὡς was originally demonstrative; poets often 
so use it (accented ὥς or ds), and prose writers in a few 
phrases: καὶ ὥς even so, οὐδ᾽ ὥς not even thus. 


8. With interrogatives wore adds an emotional tone: τί ποτε 
what, pray? wrod ποτε where in the world ? 

Ὁ. Several compounds are made with ποτε, as οὔποτε, μήποτε, © 
οὐδέποτε never, οὐπώποτε never yet. 

c. On the same model are formed ἄλλοτε at another time, 
ἑκάστοτε each time. 

ἃ, τοτέ is used only in the phrase τοτὲ μὲν... τοτὲ δὲ at 
one time . . . at another time. | 


All the relatives and indirect interrogatives become subordi- 
nating conjunctions ; their meaning is then much influenced 
by the mode of the verb. 


D. VERBS 


The forms of the verb are classed under 

Three Voices—Active, Middle, Passive ; 

Four Finite Modes—Indicative, Subjunctive, Op- 
tative, Imperative—besides the Infinitive, or verbal 
noun, and the Participle, or verbal adjective ; 


243 


244 


245 


246 


247 


248 


4 VERBS 


Seven Tenses—Present, Imperfect, Future, Aorist, 
Perfect, Pluperfect, Future Perfect ; 

Three Numbers—Singular, Plural, Dual ; 

Three Persons, as in English and Latin. 


Two Conjugations, the Mcconjugation and the ὥ- 
conjugation (from the final syllable of the present 
indicative active) are distinguished in the present and 
imperfect only ; elsewhere they are alike. 


The active and passive voices are used about as in Latin; the 
middle indicates that the subject acts on itself or with some 
reference to self. (See 500.) The passive and middle have 
the same form, except in the future and aorist. 


The indicative, subjunctive, and imperative, with the infini- 
tive and participle, are used nearly as in Latin; the optative 
is the mode of wishing, and of hypothetical and softened 
statement. (See 476, 479.) 


The tenses of the indicative are classed as 
Primary—the Present, Future, Perfect, Future 
Perfect ; and 
Secondary, or Historical—the Imperfect, Aorist, 
Pluperfect. 


The tenses are used (in the indicative) nearly as in Latin or 
English. The aorist (ἀτόριστος undefined) in the indicative 
has for its leading use that of the English simple past tense. 


The verb-stem is the part that appears in all the 
forms and stands for the general or fundamental 
meaning, which the other elements modify by add- 
ing a specific setting. Verbs are called vowel verbs, 
hquid verbs, mute verbs, from the last letter of 


VERBS τὸ 


the verb-stem. Thus παύω is a vowel verb of the 
w-conjugation, the verb-stem being παυ- stop; παύω 
I stop (transitive), παύομαι 7 stop myself or cease 
(middle), or am stopt (passive). 


a. But the terms ow-verb and μευ Ὁ are used to denote the 
conjugation to which the present and imperfect belong. 


249 The accent of verbs is recessive. For exceptions see 
285, 296 a, 297, 300 d, (165), 349 and a. 


250 Verb forms will be described in the following order : 


A. VERBS OF THE Ὡ- CONJUGATION 


I. Vowel verbs, not contracting. 

II. Vowel verbs contracting in the present system. 
III. Liquid verbs. 

IV. Mute verbs. 


B. VERBS OF THE Μι- CONJUGATION 
I. Verbs in -νῦμι. 
II. Verbs in -μι, with stem in -a:7-. 
IIL. Δίδωμι, τίθημι, type. 
IV. Irregular and defective pc-verbs. 


251 Verb-forms, while by meaning they fall into voices, 
modes, tenses, etc., also group themselves by forma- 
tion in tense-systems, each system having one tense- 
stem throughout. These tense-systems, and with 
them all the formative elements of regular verbs, are 
described in the following sections. παύω is an ex- 
ample of regular vowel verbs, with verb-stem ending 
in a long vowel or diphthong (252-254). 


76 Q- VERBS 


252 ACTIVE PARADIGM: 
INDICATIVE 
SUBJUNCTIVE 
PRimARY TENSES SECONDARY TENSES 
3 Si. 1] trat-o ἔ-παυ-ο-ν παύ-ω 
Σ 2 παύ-εις ἔ-παυ-ε-ς παύ-ῃς 
᾿ 9. παύ-ει ἔ-παυ-ε παύ-ῃ 
- Pl. 1] παύ-ο-μεν ἐ-παύ-ο-μεν παύ-ω-μεν 
Ξ 2) παύ-ε-τε ἐ-παύ-ε-τε παύ-η-τε 
5 5. παύ-ουσι ἔ-παυ-ο-ν παύ-ωσι 
2 Du. 2| παύ-ε-τον ἐ-παύ-ε-τον παύ-η-τον 
ἐξ 9) παύ-ε-τον ἐ-παυ-έ-την παύ-η-τον 
Si. 1 παύ-σω 
z 2 | παύ-σεις 
o 3 | παύ-σει 
5 ete. 
Ε as in the pres. 
1. ἢ ἔ-παυ-σα παύ-σω 
2 ἔ-παυ-σα-ς παύ-σῃς 
3 ἔ-παυ-σε παύ-σῃ 
“Jak 1 ἐ-παύ-σα-μεν παύ-σω-μεν 
Ξ 2 ἐ-παύ-σα-τε παύ-ση-τε 
3 ἔ-παυ-σα-ν παύ-σωσι 
Du. 2 ἐ-παύ-σα-τον παύ-ση-τον 
3 ἐ-παυ-σά-την παύ-ση-τον 
5 Si. 1 | πέ-παυ-κα ἐ-πε-παύ-κη, -εεἶν | πε-παύ-κω 
by 2 | πέ-παυ-κας ἐ-πε-παύ-κη-ς, -ELS | πε-πταύ-κῃς 
5 3 | πέ-παυ-κε ἐ-πε-παύ-κει ete. 
a Pl. 1 πε-παύ-κα-μεν ἐ-πε-παύ-κει-μεν as in pres. 
ῳ 2. πε-πταύ-κα-τε | ἐ-πε-παύ-κει-τε or 
5 3| πε-παύ-κασι ἐ-πε-παύ-κετσαν πεπαυκὼς ὦ, 
= Du. 2 | πε-παύ-κα-τον ἐ-πε-παύ-κει-τον ἧς, ἢ 
ἦν 9. πε-παύ-κα-τον  ἐ-πε-παυ-κεί-την ete. 


παύω (παυ-) stop 


OPTATIVE 


VOWEL VERBS 


ACTIVE 


IMPERATIVE 


παύ-οι-μι 
παύ-οι-ς 
παύ-οι 
παύ-οι-μεν 
παύ-οι-τε 
παύ-οιε-ν 
παύ-οι-τον 
παυ-οί-την 


παύ-σοι-μι 
παύ-σοι-ς 
παύ-σοι 
ete. 
as in the pres. 


παύ-σαι-μι 


παύ-σεια-ς, -σαι-ς 


παύ-σειε, -σαι 
παύ-σαι-μεν 
παύ-σαι-τε 


παύ-σεια-ν, -σαιε-ν 


παύ-σαι-τον 
παυ-σαί-την 


πε-παύ-κοι-μι 
πε-παύ-κοι-ς 
ete. 
as in pres. 
or 
πεταυκὼς εἴην, 
εἴης, εἴη 
etc. 


1 Later παυ-έ-τωσαν. 


παῦ-ε 
παυ-έ-τω 


παύ-ε-τε 
παυ-ό-ντων ' 
παύ-ε-τον 
παυ-έ-των 


παῦ-σον 
παυ-σά-τω 


παύ-σα-τε 
παυ-σά-ντων 
παύ-σα-τον 
παυ-σά-των 


2 


INFINITIVE AND 


Inf. 


Pte. 


Inf. 


Pie 


Inf. 


Pte. 


Inf. 


Eta: 


PARTICIPLE 


παύ-ειν 


παύ-ων 
παύ-ουσα 
παῦ-ον 


(See 166) 


παύ-σειν 


παύ-σων 
παύ-σουσα 
παῦ-σον 


(See 166) 


παῦ-σαι 


παύ-σᾶς 
παύ-σᾶσα 
παῦ-σαν 


(See 162 b) 


TT€-TTAU-KE-VAL 


πε-παυ-κώς 

πε-πταυ-κυῖα 

πε-παυ-κΚός 
(See 171) 


2 Later παυ-σά-τωσαν. 


253 


FUTURE PRESENT AND IMPERFECT 


AORIST 


PERFECT & PLUPERFECT 


Si. 


ἘΠ 


Du. 


ΕἸ: 


Du. 


Si. 


Tl. 


Du. 


οτος με wh 


ὧϑθ τὸ δι μὶ δ ιῦ μὶ ζὸ τὸ μὶ 


QO bo rR ϑ Oe 


Go bo 


Q-VERBS 
MIDDLE 
INDICATIVE 
PRIMARY SECONDARY 
TENSES TENSES 
παύ-ο-μαι ἐ-παυ-ό-μην 
παύ-ῃ, -εἰ ἐ-παύ-ου 
παύ-ε-ται ἐ-παύ-ε-το 
παυ-ό-μεθα ἐ-παυ-ό-μεθα 
παύ-ε-σθε ἐ-παύ-ε-σθε 
παύ-ο-νται ἐ-παύ-ο-ντο 
παύ-ε-σθον ἐ-παύ-ε-σθον 
παύ-ε-σθον ἐ-παυ-έ-σθην 


παύ-σο-μαι 

παύ-σῃ;, -σει 

παύ-σε-ται 
ete. 

as in the pres. 


πέ-παυ-μαι 
πέ-παυ-σαι 
πέ-παυ-ται 
πε-πταύ-μεθα 
πέ-παυ-σθε 
πέ-παυ-νται 
πέ-παυ-σθον 
πέ-παυ-σθον 


ιν. 


-παυ-σά-μην 
ἐ-παύ-σω 
ἐ-παύ-σα-το 
ἐ-παυ-σά-μεθα 
ἐ-παύ-σα-σθε 
ἐ-παύ-σα-ντο 
ἐ-παύ-σα-σθον 
ἐ-παυ-σά-σθην 
ἐ-πε-παύ-μην 
ἐ-πέ-παυ-σο 
ἐ-πέ-πταυ-το 
ἐ-πε-παύ-μεθα 
ἐ-πέ-παυ-σθε 
ἐ-πέ-παυ-ντο 
ἐ-πέ-παυ-σθον 


ἐ-πε-παύ-σθην 


PARADIGM: 


SUBJUNCTIVE 


παύ-ω-μαι 
παύ-ῃ 
παύ-η-ται 
παυ-ώ-μεθα 
παύ-η-σθε 
παύ-ω-νται 
παύ-η-σθον 
παύ-η-σθον 


παύ-σω-μαι 
παύ-σῃ 
παύ-ση-ται 
παυ-σώ-μεθα 
παύ-ση-σθε 
παύ-σω-νται 
παύ-ση-σθον 
παύ-ση-σθον 


πεπαυμένος ὦ 
> 
a 
πεπαυμένοι ὦμεν 
ἦτε 
ὦσι 
πεπταυμένω 


3°39 
44 
co 
<< 


παύω (παυ-) slop 


OPTATIVE 


παυ-οί-μην 
παύ-οι-ο 
παύ-οι-το 
παυ-οί-μεθα 
παύ-οι-σθε 
παύ-οι-ντο 
παύ-οι-σθον 
παυ-οί-σθην 


παυ-σοί-μην 
παύ-σοι-ο 
παύ-σοι-το 
etc. 
as in the pres. 


παυ-σαί-μην 
παύ-σαι-ο 
παύ-σαι-το 
παυ-σαί-μεθα 
παύ-σαι-σθε 
παύ-σαι-ντο 
παύ-σαι-σθον 
παυ-σαί-σθην 


πεπαυμένος εἴην 


εἴημεν 
εἴητε 

εἴησαν 
εἴητον 
εἰήτην 


πεπαυμένοι 


πεπαυμένω. 


VOWEL VERBS 


MIpDLE 


IMPERATIVE 


Tav-ov 
παυ-έ-σθω 


παύ-ε-σθε 

παυ-έ-σθων 
Tav-e-o8ov 
παυ-έ-σθων 


παῦ-σαι 
παυ-σά-σθω 


παύ-σα-σθε 

παυ-σά-σθων 
παύ-σα-σθον 
παυ-σά-σθων 


πέ-παυ-σο 
πε-παύ-σθω 


πέ-παυ-σθε 

πε-παύ-σθων 
πέ-παυ-σθον 
πε-παύ-σθων 


INFINITIVE AND 
PARTICIPLE 


Inf. παύ-ε-σθαι 


Pte. παυ-ό-μενος 
παυ-ο-μένη 
παυ-ό-μενον 

(See 76) 


Inf. παύ-σε-σθαι 


Pte. παυ-σό-μενος 
παυ-σο-μένη 
παυ-σό-μενον 


Inf. παύ-σα-σθαι 
Pte. παυ-σά-μενος 


παυ-σα-μένη 
παυ-σά-μενον 


Inf. πε-παῦ-σθαι 


Pte. πε-παυ-μένος 
πε-παυ-μένη 
πε-παυ-μένον 


80 


254 


PRESENT AND IMPERFECT 


FUTURE 


Si. 


AORIST 


PERFECT & PLUPERFECT 


Q-VERBS 


ΤῊΣ 


Du. 


ele 


Du. 


ile 


Du. 


Pl. 


Du. 


Si. 


Co bo δ WO FOO DO FY OO DO OO DO FF CO DO FF! OD DO OO DO = CD DO |! OO DO OO DO μὶ OO DO μὰ 


PASSIVE 


INDICATIVE 
PRIMARY SECONDARY 
TENSES TENSES 
παύ-ο-μαι ἐ-παυ-ό-μην 
παύ-ῃ, -εἰ ἐ-πταύ-ου 
παύ-ε-ται ἐ-παύ-ε-το 
ete. etc. 


Like the Middle, p. 


παυ-θή-σο-μαι 


παυ-θή-σῃ, -εἰ 
παυ-θή-σε-ται 
παυ-θη-σό-μεθα 
παυ-θή-σε-σθε 
παυ-θή-σο-νται 
παυ-θή-σε-σθον 


παυ-θή-σε-σθον 
ἐ-παύ-θη-ν 


πέ-παυ-μαι 

πέ-παυ-σαι 

πέ-παυ-ται 
etc. 


é-Trav-817-s 
ἐ-παύ-θη 
ἐ-παύ-θη-μεν 
ἐ-παύ-θη-τε 


PARADIGM: 


SUBJUNCTIVE 


παύ-ω-μαι 

παύ-ἢ 

παύ-η-ται 
ete. 


παυ-θῶ 
παυ-θῇ-ς 
παυ-θῇ 
παυ-θῶ-μεν 
παυ-θῆ-τε 


ἐ-παύ-θη-σαν  παυ-θῶσι 


9 ; 
ἐ-παύ-θη-τον 


ἐ-παυ-θή-την 


ἐ-πε-παύ-μην 

ἐ-πέ-πταυ-σο 

ἐ-πέ-παυ-το 
ete. 


παυ-θῆ-τον 
παυ-θῆ-τον 


ee 
πεπαυμένος ὦ 


ts 
Ὦ 


ete. 


Like the Middle, p. 78 


VOWEL VERBS 81 


παύω (παυ-) stop PASSIVE 

OPTATIVE IMPERATIVE ΤΑΝΕ ΕΝ 
παυ-οί-μην 
παύ-οι-ο παύ-ου Inf. παύ-ε-σθαι 
παύ-οι-το παυ-έ-σθω 

ete. etc, Pte. παυ-ό-μενος 

Like the Middle, p. 79 
παυ-θη-σοί-μην Inf. παυ-θή-σε-σθαι 
παυ-θή-σοι-ο 
παυ-θή-σοι-το Pte. παυ-θη-σό-μενος 
παυ-θη-σοί-μεθα παυ-θη-σο-μένη 
παυ-θή-σοι-σθε παυ-θη-σό-μενον 
Ἰπαυ-θή-σοι-ντο 
παυ-θή-σοι-σθον 
παυ-θη-σοί-σθην 
παυ-θείη-ν Inf. παυ-θῆ-ναι 
παυ-θείη-ς παύ-θη-τι 
παυ-θείη παυ-θή-τω | Pte. παυ-θείς 
παυ-θείη-μεν, -θεῖμεν παυ-θεῖσα 
παυ-θείη-τε, -θεῖτε παύ-θη-τε παυ-θέν 
παυ-θείη-σαν, -θεῖεν παυ-θέ-ντων (See 165) 
παυ-θείη-τον, -θεῖτον παύ-θη-τον 
παυ-θειή-την, -θείτην παυ-θή-των 
πεπαυμενός εἴην πέ-παυ-σο | Inf. πε-παῦ-σθαι 
εἴης πε-παύ-σθω | 
εἴη Pte. πε-παυ-μένος 
ete. ete. 


Like the Middle, p. 79 


255 


256 


257 


82 Q-VERBS 


A. VERBS OF THE 2-CONJUGATION 


I, VowEL VERBS, NOT CONTRACTING 


The Present System 


The present system includes the indicative present 
and imperfect, with the subjunctive, optative, impera- 
tive, infinitive, and participle, active and middle (pas- 
sive). All regular w-verbs are conjugated in the 
present system like παύω (252-254). 


The present stem (indicative) is made from the verb- 
stem in several ways, and verbs are classed (in the 
present system) accordingly. 


For convenience in later use (since all wpresents are in- 
flected alike), the modes of forming the present stem in all 
classes of w-presents are here described together (257-262). 


(1) Formative-Vowel Class.—The suffix -o:e (25), 
called the formative vowel, is added. Verbs that 


have a stronger and weaker form of the root take in 
this system the stronger : 


VERB-STEM PRES, STEM PRES, IND. 
παυ- stop, mavore- (1. 6. Tavo-, Tave-), παύω, 
λιπ-, λειπ- leave, λειποιε-, λείπω, 
φυγ-, pevy- flee,  evyore-, φεύγω. 


a. In γίγνομαι become, for γιτγεν-ο-μαι, the verb-stem is re- 
duplicated. This present reduplication consists in prefixing 
the initial consonant with «. So also in 

πίπτω fall, for πι-πετ-ω, 
ἴσχω hold, for σισεχοὼω (54), 
τίκτω bring forth, for τιτεκ-ω. 


VOWEL VERBS 


83 


b. Verb-stems in -v-, -ev- lose v between vowels (27): 
πλέω sail, for πλευ-ω (πλυ-, TrEV-) ; ῥέω flow, for pev-w (ῥυ-, ῥευ-) ; 
πνέω blow, for πνευ-τ-ω (rvv-, πνευ-). 


58 (2) Tau Class. 


The suffix -rote- is added. The verb- 


stem always ends in a labial mute, which becomes π 


before τ (88 b, 43 a): 
VERB-STEM 
pip-, ῥιφ- throw, 
τυπ- strike, 
βλαβ- harm, 
κρυφ- hide, 
ταφ- (47 d) bury, 


PRES. STEM 
purrote-, 
TUTITOLE-, 
βλαπτοιε-, 
κρυπτοὶε-, 
θαπτο:ε-, 


PRES. IND. 
eZ 
pinta, 
τύπτω, 
βλάπτω, 
κρύπτω, 
θάπτω. 


59 (3) Iota Class.—The suffix -ἰοε- is added ; for sound- 


changes see 56: 


VERB-STEM 


a. Bad- throw, 
ὀφελ- INCPEASE, 


PRES. STEM 
βαλλο:ε-, 
ὀφελλοιε-, 


PRES. IND. 
βάλλω, 
ὀφέλλω. 


But ὀφείλω owe (ὀφελ-) is like those under b. 


b. φαν- show, 
τεν- stretch, 
σπερ- SOW, 
ἀμυν- ward off, 
κριν- decide, 


6. φυλακ- guard, 
ταγ- arrange, 
ταραχ- disturb, 


φαινοἹε-, 
τΤεινο ες, 
OTTELPOLE-, 
ἀμῦνο!:ε-, 
κρινοΐε-, 
φυλασσοιε-, 


τασσοὶε-, 
ταρασσοὶε:, 


φαίνω, 
τείνω, 
σπείρω, 
ἀμύνω, 
κρίνω, 
φυλάσσω, 


’ 
τάσσω, 
, 
ταράσσω, 


84 2- VERBS 


VERB-STEM PRES. STEM PRES. IND. 
ἃ. dpad- tell, ppalore-, φράζω, 
ἐλπιδ- hope, ἐλπιζο:ε-, ἐλπίζω, 
οἰμωγ- lament, οἰμωζοϊε-, οἰμώζω, 
κλαγγ- cry out, Kralote-, κλάζω, 
σαλπιγγ- blow trumpet, oaadmore-, σαλπίζω. 


6. The verb-stems xav- burn and κλαυ- weep give καίω and 
κλαίω, with loss of v (27), farther shortened in prose to kaw 
and κλάω. 7 


260 (4) Inceptive Class.—The suffix -oKore or -ἰσκοΐε- 18 
added : 


VERB-STEM PRES. STEM PRES. IND. 
ape- please, ἀρεσκο!ε-, ἀρέσκω, 
ε ε ε ΠῚ 
εὑρ- find, εὑρισκο!ε-, εὑρίσκω. 


a. The class is so named because some verbs in it imply 
beginning or becoming, as ynpaoxw grow old, (yypa-), γιγνώσκω 
come to know, perceive (yvo:w-, 28 a). 

Ὁ. Several presents take a reduplication (257 a), as γι-γνώ- 
σκω recognize (yvo:w-). πάσχω {(παθ-, pres. stem zracyo:e-) suffer 
is irregular for za6-cxw, διδάσκω (διδαχ-) teach is for διδαχ-σκω. 


261 (5) Nasal Class.—A suffix containing ν is added. 
a. The suffix -vo:e- is added : 


VERB-STEM PRES, STEM PRES. IND. 
τεμ- Cut, TEMLVOSE-, τέμνω. 

b. The suffix -avoie- is added: 

ἅμαρτ- 471), ἁμαρτανοὶε-, ἁμαρτάνω. 


ο. The suffix -ανοῖε- is added, with an inserted 
nasal in the verb-stem : 


Pres. μανθάνω (μαθ-) learn 


Pres. δοκέω (δοκε-) seem, 


VOWEL VERBS 


VERB-STEM PRES. STEM 
λαβ- take, Aap Bavoie-, 
μαθ- learn, 
λαχ- get by lot, 


pavOavore-, 


Aayxavote-, 
ἃ. The suffix -vvo:e is added: 
ἐλα- drive, ἐλαυνο!:ε-, 

6. The suffix -veore- is added: 


iK- COME, ἱκνεοιε-, 


PRES. IND. 


Lap Bava, 


μανθάνω, 


λαγχάνω. 


ἐλαύνω. 


ε , 
LKVEOLAL. 


Thus: 


85 


262 Sometimes a verb-stem is in the present tense-system (or in 
some other) longer by an added e:y or ow. 


fut. δόξω (dox-) shall seem, 
Pres. ἁλίσκομαι (6A-) am taken, fut. ἁλώσομαι (dAw-) shall be 
taken, 
perf. μεμάθηκα (μαθη-) have 
learned. 


63 The personal endings of the indicative are partially 
different in the primary and secondary tenses ; they 
also distinguish the active and middle (passive) voices, 


ACTIVE 
Primary Secondary 
Baie 1. -μι -ν 
2. «ς -ς 
9. σσι - 
Pl 1. -μεν -μεν 
2, -τε -τε 
8. -(v)ol,-dou -ν, -σαν 
Du. ὃ. -rov -TOV 
Ὁ. -TOV “τὴν 


MIDDLE AND PASSIVE 


Primary Secondary 


-μαι 
-σαι 
-ται 
-μεθα 
-σθε 
-νται 
-σθον 
-σθον 


“μην 
-σο 
-το 
-μεθα 
-σθε 
-VTO 
-σθον 


-σθην 


264 


265 


86 


2 - VERBS 


a. The formative vowel is o before » or v of the ending, 


elsewhere ε. 
endings we have 


-w instead of 


«εἰς ςς « 


-€t ςς ςς 


ουσι “ τ 


But in combination with the primary active 


τ-ο-μι, 
~€-S, 
-ε-σι, 


-ο(ν)σι (51 0). 


The endings -ἄσι and -cay never go with the formative 


vowel (see 355). 
b. In the middle (passive) 


-<-cat becomes -ῃ (55 a and 29 d), later -«, 
--co becomes -ov (55 a and 29 c). 


c. Poets often use the ending -μεσθα for -μεθα. 
and -aro in place of -vrac and -vto see 270 a, 344 ο. 


For -arat 
For -s 


a few verbs have -σθα (381, 384, 385, 386). 


The imperfect (also the other secondary tenses in the 
indicative) takes the augment, the sign of past time. 
a. In poetry the augment is sometimes omitted. 


The augment has two forms: 
a. The syllabic augment is ε-, prefixed to a stem 


beginning with a consonant. 


Initial p is doubled (48): ῥίπτω throw, impf. 


ἔρριπτον. 


b. The temporal augment is the lengthening of an 
initial vowel: a-, a-, and ε- become 7-, ov- is un- 
changed ; in later Greek ev- and εἰ- are unchanged : 


ἄγω lead, 

ἐλπίζω hope, 
εἰκάζω make like, 
ὁπλίζω arm, 
οἴομαι think, 


impf. ἦγον, 


ἠλπιζον, 

» ¥ 
ηκαζον, εἴκαζον, 
9 

ὠπλιζον, 


>? 
Ved tl Lt 


VOWEL VERBS | 87 


ἱκετεύω entredt, ἱκέτευον, 
αἰσθάνομαι percewe, ησθανόμην, 

ᾷἄδω sing, Noor, 

ε ’ σ ν 
εὑρίσκω find, ηὕρισκον, εὕρισκον. 


266 βούλομαι wish, δύναμαι can, μέλλω intend take either ε- or 7 
as augment: ἡβουλόμην, ἠδυνάμην, ἤμελλον, or ἐβουλόμην, etc. 


: 267 Some verbs that have lost an initial consonant still take the 
: syllabic augment; «e- then becomes e-. Among the most fre- 


quent are 

ἔχω have (ἐχ- for cey-, 54), impf. εἶχον, 
ἕπομαι follow (éx- for cer-), εἱπόμην, 
ἕρπω creep (ἕρπ- for σερπ-, Lat. 8610), εἷρπον, 
ἐάω let, permit, . εἴων, 
ἐθίζω accustom, εἴθιζον, 
ὁράω see, ἑώρων, 
ὠθέω push, ἐώθουν. 


a. ἑώρων and some others have a double augment, syllabic 
and temporal. 


268 A verb compounded with a preposition augments the 
simple form; a preposition ending in a consonant 
then recovers its original form : 


ava-Baivw go up, impf. ἀν-έβαινον, 
εἰσ-άγω lead in, : εἰσ-ῆγον, 
συλ-λέγω collect, συν-έλεγον, 
συ-σκευάζω pack up, συν-εσκεύαζον, 
ἐμ-βάλλω throw in, ἐν-έβαλλον, 
ἐγ-τγράφω write in, ἐν-έγραφον, 
ἐκ- βάλλω throw out, ἐξ-έβαλλον. 


For elision see 32, 33. 


269 


270 


88 2-VERBS 


a. The accent never stands before the augment syllable: 
εἰσῆγον (not εἴσηγον). 


Ὁ. Verbs derived from words that begin with a preposition 
generally take the augment as if the verb itself were a com- 
pound; but there are exceptions : 


ὑποπτεύω suspect (ὕπ-οπτος suspicious), ὑπ-ώπτευον, 
ἐπιορκέω perjure oneself (ἐπίορκος perjured), ἐπι-ώρκουν, 


ἐνθυμέομαι lay to heart (ἐνθύμιος taken to heart), ἐν-εθυμούμην. 
But 


ἐναντιόομαι oppose (ἐναντίος opposite), ἡναντιούμην. 


c. A few compounds put the augment before the prepo- 
sition : 
καθέζομαι sit down ἐκαθεζόμην, 
καθίζω seat, ἐκάθιζον, 
καθεύδω sleep ἐκάθευδον or καθηῦδον. 


d. A double augment is found in ἠμφεγνόουν from ἀμφιγνοέω, 
and ἠνειχόμην from ἀν-έχομαι. (So in the aorist ἠνεσχόμην.) 


The subjunctive takes the primary endings ; -o%e- be- 
comes w before p» or v, elsewhere ἡ. Thus -w:- is 
the mode-suffix, appearing throughout the subjunce- 
tive, which is otherwise like the indicative. 


The optative takes the secondary endings, but with 
-ut instead of -ν. The formative vowel is 0, which 
makes a diphthong with the mode-suflix -- (or -ve in 
the third plural active). 


In the middle -co loses o (55 a). 


a. Poets not infrequently use the ending -aro for -vro in 
the present and aorist optative (cp. 344 c). 


271 


272 


273 


274 


275 


276 


“VOWEL VERBS 89 


The imperative endings are 
ACTIVE MIDDLE, PASSIVE 

Si, 2. -Ot, -s -σο 

3. TW -σθω 
Pio ---re -σθε 

3. -ντων (ττωσαν) -σθων (-σθωσαν) 
Du. 2. -rov -σθον 

ὃ. ττων -σθων 
The formative vowel is o before -ντων, élsewhere ε. 


τθι and -s are omitted in o-presents; -rwoav and 
-σθωσαν are rare or late. 


In the middle -e-co loses o and contracts. 


The infinitive endings are 
ACTIVE MIDDLE, PASSIVE 
“EV, -εναι, -ναι -σθαι 


In o-presents the formative vowel and endings com- 
bined are -e-ev, contracted to -ewv, and -ε-σθαι. 


The participial endings are 
Active, -vr-, Middle and Passive, -pevo-, 
before which the formative vowel is o. 


Active participles are declined like ἄκων (166, 167) ; 
middle participles are regular in the vowel declension 


(76). 


The Future System 


This includes an indicative, optative, infinitive, and 
participle, active and middle. (For the future pas- 
Sive see 310.) 


278 


219 


280 


281 


282 


289 


284 


285 


286 


90 0-VERBS 


The future stem is formed by adding to the verb-stem the 
suffix -co:e- (stigmatic future). 
The inflection is like that of the present system. 


The Aorist System 


This includes an indicative, subjunctive, optative, 1m- 
perative, with infinitive and participle, active and 
middle. (For the passive see 802-809.) 


The aorist stem is formed by adding to the verb-stem the suf- 
fix -σα:ε-, which becomes -ow:y- in the subjunctive (sigmatic 
or σα-αογ 181). 


The indicative takes the augment (264, 265) and the second- 
ary endings (263); in the third singular active the tense- 
suffix is -ce-.. 

In the middle -ca-co becomes -σω (55 a and 29 c). 


The subjunctive has the combined tense- and mode-suffix 
-cw:n-, and is inflected like the subjunctive present. 


The optative contracts the tense-suffix -ca- with the mode- 
suffix -ἰ- (-ve- in the third plural active). But in the active 
the forms with -ce- and -ἰα- (2d sing. and 3d plu.) or -e- (3d 
sing.) are more common. 

In the middle -cai-co becomes -σαιο. 


The imperative takes the tense-suffix -ca-; but -cov in the 
active second singular and -oa in the middle second singular 
stand irregularly for the combined tense-suffix and ending. 


The infinitive takes -σαι in the active (irregularly) for com- 
bined tense-suffix and ending, and always accents the penult 
(contrary to 249) : παιδεῦσαι from παιδεύω educate. 


The participles take the tense-suffix -oa-; the active participle 
is declined like ἅπας (162), the middle is regular in the vowel 
declension. 


287 


288 


289 


VOWEL VERBS 91 


The Perfect Active System 


This includes a perfect and pluperfect indicative and 
a perfect subjunctive, optative, infinitive, and par- 
ticiple, in the active. 


The perfect stem (active) takes a reduplication (289) and 
adds the tense-suffix -κα-, which becomes -x7y-, -Ket-, or -κε- in 
the pluperfect, -xw:y- in the subjunctive, -xo- in the optative, 
-xe- in the infinitive, -xor-, -kws, -κυιᾶ in the participle. (xa- 


perfect.) 
The perfect reduplication is formed as follows: 


a. If the verb-stem begins with a single consonant 
(except p), that consonant with ε is prefixt, a rough 
mute changing to the smooth (47 a): 


κελεύω (κελευ-) bid, κε-κέλευ-κα, 
κωλύω (κωλῦ-) hinder, κε-κώλῦ-κα, 
χορεύω (χορευ-) dance, κε-χόρευ-κα, 
φυτεύω (φυτευ-) plant, πε-φύτευ-κα, 
θηρεύω (Onpev-) hunt, τε-θήρευ-κα. 


p. If the verb-stem begins with a mute and liquid 
(39) the mute with ε is prefixt : 


πλέω (πλυ-, πλευ-) sail, πέπλευ-κα. 
e. Otherwise the reduplication is like the augment 
(265) : 
στρατεύω (στρατευ-) serve in the army, ἐ-στράτευ-κα, 
ζητέω (ζητε:η-) seek, ἐ-ζήτη-κα, 


ῥίπτω (ῥιφ-) throw, ἔρ-ριφα (48), 
ἀδικέω (ἀδικεῖη-) Wrong, ἠ-δίκηκα. 


92 Q-VERBS- , 


ἃ. But γιγνώσκω (yvo:w-) come to know makes ἔτγνωκα ; also 
κτάομαι (KTa:n-) acquire makes κέκτημαι, 
πίπτω (πετ-, πτω-) fall makes πέπτωκα, 
μιμνήσκω (μνη-) remind makes μέμνημαι. 


290 A verb compounded with a preposition reduplicates 
the simple form : 


ovy-xopevw dance with, συγ-κεχόρευκα, 
ἀνα-βαίνω go up, ἀνα-βέβηκα, 
εἰσ-άγω lead in, εἰσ-τῆχα (See a). 


a. The accent never stands before the reduplication. 


291 Irregular reduplication is found in the mone: verbs, some 
of which are rather frequent : 
a. The verbs described in 267 (if they have a perfect 
stem) make the reduplication like the augment : 


ἐάω let, impf. εἴων, pf. «axa, 
ἐργάζομαι work, εἰργαζόμην, εἴργασμαι, 
ὠθέω push, ἐ-ώθουν, ἔωσμαι, 
ὠνέομαι buy, ἐωνούμην, ἐώνημαι. 


With double reduplication : 

ὁράω 866, ἑώρων, ἑώρᾶκα, 

ἀν-οἴγω open, ἀγ-έῳγον, ἀν-έῳχα. 

So too the root εκ-, «x-, makes the perfect ἔοικα am like, 
plup. ἐῴκειν. 

b. Several verbs beginning with a liquid take εἰς as re- 
duplication : 


λαμβάνω take, pf. εὔληφα, €t-Anppat, 
λαγχάνω get by lot, εἴληχα, 

root pe:y- speak, εἴρηκα, εἴτρημαι, 

root pep-, μαρ- divide, εἵμαρται it is fated, 
δια-λέγομαι converse, δι-εἔλεγμαι, 
συλ-λέγω gather, συν-είλοχα, συν-εζλεγμαι. 


Similarly the defective εἴωθα am wont. 


292 


299 


294 


295 


296 


297 


VOWEL VERBS 93 


c. Some verbs beginning with a, «, o reduplicate by pre- 
fixing the vowel and the following consonant, lengthening the 
vowel of the second syllable (Attic reduplication) : 


ἀκούω hear, pf. ἀκ-ήκοα, 
ἐλαύνω drive, ἐλ-ήλακα, 
ἐλέγχω test, ἐλ-ήλεγμαι, 
ὀρύττω dig, ὀρ-ώρυχα. 

Also éyeipw wake, ἐγρ-ήγορα (332). 


The pluperfect of these verbs augments only initial a and o. 
d. The verbs described in 268 b take the reduplication in 
the same place as the augment. 


The perfect active indicative takes the primary endings; but 
in the sing. -μι and -o. are omitted, the tense-suffix becom- 
ing -xe- in the third person ; -xa-(v)ov becomes -κᾶσι (51 ¢). 


The pluperfect augments the reduplicated stem; if the re- 
duplication is like the augment of the imperfect (289 0), no 
change is made. The tense-suffix is -xy-, -xei-, or -xe- as in the 
paradigm ; in the plural and dual both -xe- and -xe- are found. 
The secondary endings are used, with -cay in the third plural; 
the older form in -κη omits -v in the first person singular. 


The subjunctive adds the combined suffix -«w:y- to the re- 
duplicated stem, and is inflected like the present active subjv. 

In place of these forms are used also compound forms, the 
perfect active participle with the subjunctive of εἰμι am (884). 


The optative adds to the reduplicated stem the combined suf- 
fix -κοι-, and is inflected like the present active optative. 

Compound forms, the perfect active participle with the 
present optative of εἰμι am, are also used. 


The infinitive adds -xéva to the reduplicated stem. 
a. All infinitives in -vac accent the penult. 


The participle adds to the reduplicated stem the combined 
suffix -κως, -κυιᾶ, -κος, -kot-, and is declined like εἰδώς (172). 


298 


299 


900 


901 


909 


909 
904 


94 2-VERBS 


Perfect Middle System 


This includes an indicative perfect and pluperfect, a 
subjunctive, optative, infinitive, and participle ; also 
a future perfect passive indicative, optative, infinitive, 
and participle. 

The tense-stem is the reduplicated verb-stem, with no tense- 
suffix. 


a. The indicative takes the primary endings in the perfect, 
the secondary endings in the pluperfect. 

b. The subjunctive and optative are compound forms—the 
perfect middle participle with the present subjunctive and 
optative of εἰμι am (384). 

c. The imperative takes the regular imperative endings. 

ἃ. The infinitive takes the ending -σθαι, the participle the 
ending -μένος (-μένη, -μένον) ; both always accent the penult. 


The future perfect passive adds to the reduplicated stem the 
future suffix (278) with the middle endings. Thus: 


Ind. πε-παύ-σο-μαι, etc., I shall have been stopt. 
Opt. πε-παυ-σοίμην, ete. 
Inf. πε-παύ-σε-σθαι. 


Ρίο. πε-παυ-σό-μενος, etc. 


The Passive System: @n- Passive 


This includes an aorist and a future. The passive 
stem is formed by adding to the verb-stem the passive 
suffix, which 15 -@y- before a single consonant, -θε- 
before two consonants or a vowel. (@y-passive.) 


The aorist passive takes the active endings throughout. 


The indicative takes the augment (265) and the secondary 
endings, with -cay in the third plural. 


VOWEL VERBS 95 


The subjunctive adds to the passive-stem the mode-suffix -w:7-; 
-θέω:η- contracts to -θῶ- or -θῆ-, and the inflection, except for 
accent, is like any active subjunctive. 


The optative adds to the passive stem the mode-suffix -UN-, 
in the plural and dual -- or -ἰη- {(τιε- in the third plural) ; 
-Ge1- contracts to -θει-, and hence the accent can not pre- 
cede -θει-. 


The imperative adds to the passive-stem the imperative end- 
ings, with -r. for -6 (47 and b). 

The infinitive adds -va to the passive-stem, and accents the 
penult (296 a). 


The participle adds -ντ- to the passive stem, and is declined 
as in 165. 


The future passive adds to the passive stem the future suffix 
-co:e- with the middle endings, in the indicative, optative, in- 
finitive, and participle. 

The principal parts of a verb are the first form of 
every system used in it; thus they indicate the entire 
conjugation : 


Verb-stem, παυ- stop, κωλῦ- hinder, 
Present system, παύω κωλύω 
Future system, παύσω κωλύσω 
Aorist system, ἔπαυσα ἐκώλυσα 
Perfect act. syst., πέπαυκα κεκώλῦκα 
Perfect mid. syst., πέπαυμαι κεκώλυμαι 
Passive system, ἐπαύθην ἐκωλύθην 


Two common verb-stems, θῦ- sacrifice and λῦ- loose, have ἴῃ 
the present, future, and ca-aorist, elsewhere v: θύω, θύσω, 
ἔθυσα, τέθυκα, τέθυμαι, ἐτύθην (47 ο). 

A few others are irregular or variable. (See, in the Verb- 


list, ἀνύω, δύω, τίω.) 


918 


90 


PRESENT 


bo μὶ GO 


Go bo OO 


bo ee 


Tip(aw)d 
Tip(aers)as 
τιμ(άει)ᾷ 
τιμ(ἀο)ῶ-μεν 
τιμ(άε)ᾶ-τε 
τιμ(άου)ῶσι 
τιμ(ἀε)ᾶ-τον 
τιμ(άε)ᾶ-τον 


ht ὦ LO καὶ 


ὧϑ τῷ CO bo 


τιμ(άο)ῶ-μαι 
τιμί(άειγᾷ 
τιμ(ἀε)ᾶ-ται 
τιμ(αό)ώ-μεθα 
τιμ(άε)ᾶ-σθε 
τιμ(άογῶ-νται 
τιμ(άε)ᾶ-σθον 
τιμ(ἀε)ᾶ-σθον 


PRESENT 


02 -VERBS 


INDICATIVE 


IMPERFECT 


ἐτίμ(αονγω-ν 


ἐττμ(αέ)ά-την 


ἐττμ(αό)ώ-μην 
ἐττμ(άου)ῶ 
ἐτιμ(άε)ᾶ-το 
ἐττμ(αό)ώ-μεθα 
ἐττμ(ἀε)ᾶ-σθε 
ἐττμ(άογῶ-ντο 
ἐττμ(ἀε)ᾶ-σθον 
ἐττμ(αέ)ά-σθην 


Future ° 


TIL How 


ττμάω (tina:y-) honor 


ACTIVE 


SUBJUNCTIVE 


τιμ(άω)ῶ 
τιμ(άἀῃς)ᾷς 
τιμ(άῃ)ᾷ 


τιμ(ἀω)ῶ-μεν 


τιμ(άἀη)ᾶ-τε 
τιμ(άω)ῶσι 
τιμ(ἀη)ᾶ-τον. 
τιμ(άη)ᾶ-τον 


MIDDLE 


τιμ(άω)ῶ-μαι 
τιμίάῃᾷὨἩ 
τιμ(άη)ᾶ-ται 
τιμ(αώγώ-μεθα 
τιμ(άη)ᾶ-σθε 
τιμ(ἀω)ῶ-νται 
τιμ(άη)ᾶ-σθον 
τιμ(ἀη)ᾶ-σθον 


PRINCIPAL 


AORIST 


ἐτίμησα 


ττμάω (ττμα:η-) on 


VOICE 


OPTATIVE 


τιμ(ἀοιγῷ τρι, 
τιμ(άοιγῷς, 
τιμ(άοιγῷ, 
τιμ(άοιγῷ-μεν, ᾿ 
τιμ(ἀοι)ῷ-τε, 
τιμ(άοιγῷε-ν 
τιμ(άοιγῷ -τον, 
τιμ(αοίγῴ-την, 


CONTRACT VERBS 


or 


1 
rEx «ΣΦ. «8. .Σ. ES 
= ΤΩΣ 
Se 


-ῴητον 


-φήτην 


VOICE 


τιμ(αοίγῴ-μην 
τιμ(άοι ῷ-ο 
τιμ(άοιγῷ -το 
τιμ(αοίγῴ-μεθα 
τιμ(άοιγῷ-σθε 
τιμ(άοιγῷ-ντο 
τιμ(ἀοιγῷ-σθον 
τιμ(αοί)ῴ-σθην 


PARTS 


Perrect ACTIVE 


; 
τετίμηκα 


ry 
‘ 


IMPERATIVE 


τίμ(αε)α 
τιμ(αέ)ά -τω 


τιμ(άε)ᾶ-τε 
τιμ(αό)ώ-ντων 
τιμ(άε)ᾶ-τον 
Tip(aé)a-Twv 


τιμ(άουγῶ 
τιμ(αέ)ά-σθω 


τιμ(ἀε)ᾶ-σθε 

τἱμ(αέ)ά -σθων 
τιμ(άε)ᾶ-σθον 
τιμ(αέ)ά -σθων 


| ΡΕΒΕΕΟΤ MIDDLE 


τετίμημαι 


97 


INFINITIVE, 
PARTICIPLE 


INFINITIVE 
τιμ(άειν)ᾶν 


PARTICIPLE 
τιμ(ἀων)ῶν 
(168 4) 


INFINITIVE 
τιμ(ἀε)ᾶ-σθαι 


PARTICIPLE 
τιμ(αό)ώ-μενος 


AORIST PASSIVE 


ἐττμήθην 


314 


98 


ahaa | 
2 
3 
Liga 
2 
| 3 
ΤῸ 
3 
pene a 
B30 
3 
ΒΟ 
2 
3 
D. 2 
3 


2-VERBS 


ποιέω (ποιε:η-) make, do 


INDICATIVE 
PRESENT IMPERFECT 
ποι(έω)ῶ | ἔποί(εον)ου-ν 
ποι(έεις)εῖς ἐποί(εες)ει-ς 
ποιί(έειγεῖ ἐποί(εεγει 
ποι(έο)οῦ-μεν ἐποι(έο)οῦ-μεν 


ποι(έε)εῖ-τε 

ποι(έου)οῦσι 
ποι(έε)εϊ-τον 
ποι(έε)εῖ-τον 


ποι(έο)οῦ-μαι 
ποι(έειγεῖ 
ποι(έε)εϊ-ται 
ποι(εό)ού-μεθα 
ποι(έε)εῖ-σθε 
ποι(έο)γοῦ-νται 
ποι(έε)εῖ-σθον 
ποι(έε)εῖ-σθον 


PRESENT 


TTOLEW 


ἐποι(έε)εῖ-τε 
ἐποί(εον)ου-ν 
ἐποι(έε)εῖ-τον 
ἔποι(εέ)εί-την 


ἐποι(εό)ού-μην 
ἐποι(έου)οῦ 
ἐποι(έε)εῖ-το 
ἐποι(εόγού-μεθα 
ἐποι(έε)εῖ-σθε 
ἐποι(έογοῦ-ντο 
ἐποι(έε)εῖ-σθον 
ἐποι(εέ)γεί-σθην 


FUTURE 


ποιήσω 


ACTIVE 


SUBJUNCTIVE 


ποι(έω)ῶ 
ποι(έῃς)ῇς 
ποι(έῃγῇ 
ποι(έἐω)ῶ-μεν 
ποι(έη)ῆ-τε 
ποι(έω)ῶσι 
ποι(έη)γῆ-τον 
ποι(έηγῆ-τον 


MIDDLE 


ποι(έω)ῶ-μαι 
ποι(έῃγῇ 
ποι(έηγῆ-ται 
ποι(εώ)γώ-μεθα 
ποι(έη)ῆ-σθε 
ποι(έω)ῶ-νται 
ποι(έηγῆ-σθον 
ποι(έη)ῆ-σθον 


PRINCIPAL 


AORIST 


ἐποίησα 


CONTRACT VERBS 


ποιέω (ποιε:η-) make, do 


OPTATIVE 


IMPERATIVE 


ποιί(έοι)οῖ-μι, -oinv 
ποι(έοις)οῖ-ς, -οίης 
ποι(έοιγοῖ, -οίη 
ποι(έοιγοῖ-μεν, -οίημεν 
ποι(έοι)οῖ-τε, -οίητε 


ποι(έοι)οῖε-ν 
ποι(έοι)οῖ-τον, -οίητον 
ποι(εοί)οί-την, -οιήτην 


VOICE 


ποι(εοί)οί- μην 
ποι(έοι)οῖ-ο 
ποι(έοι)οῖ-το 
ποι(εοί)οί- μεθα 
ποι(έοι)οῖ-σθε 
ποιί(έοιγοῖ-ντο 
ποι(έοιγοῖ-σθον 
ποι(εοίγοί-σθην 


PARTS 


PerRFEctT ACTIVE 


πεποίηκα 


ποί(εε)ει 
ποι(εέ)εί- τω 


ποι(έε)εῖ-τε 
ποι(εόγού-ντων 
ποι(έε)εῖ-τον 
ποι(εέγεί- των 


Trou(€ov)ov 
ποι(εέγεί-σθω 


ποι(έε)εῖ-σθε 

ποι(εέγεί-σθων 
ποι(έε)εῖ-σθον 
ποι(εέ)εί-σθων 


Perrect MIDDLE 


| πεποίημαι 


99 


INFINITIVE, 
PARTICIPLE 


INFINITIVE 
ποι(έειν)εῖν 


PARTICIPLE 
ποι(έων)ῶν 
(168 b) 


INFINITIVE 
ποι(έε)εῖ-σθαι 


PARTICIPLE 
ποι(εόγού-μενος 


AoRIST PASSIVE 


ἐποιήθην 


315 


100 


bo 


mt OO 


ee eco 


bh μὶ OS tO Re 


bo 


bo Go 


iss 


0Q-VERBS 


SovAdw (δουλο:ω-) enslave 


INDICATIVE 


PRESENT 


δουλ(όω)ῶ 
δουλ(όεις)οῖς 
SovA(der)ot 
δουλ(όο)οῦ-μεν 
δουλ(όε)οῦ-τε 
SovA(dov)otor 
δουλ(όε)οῦ-τον 
δουλ(όε)οῦ-τον 


IMPERFECT 


ἐδούλ(οον)ου-ν 
ἐδούλ(οες)ου-ς 
ἐδούλ(οε)ου 
ἐδουλ(όο)γοῦ-μεν 
ἐδουλ(όε)οῦ-τε 
ἐδούλ(οον)ου-ν 
ἐδουλ(όε)οῦ-τον 
ἐδουλ(οέ)ού-την 


ACTIVE 
SUBJUNCTIVE 


δουλ(όω)ῶ 
δουλ(όῃς)οῖς 
δουλ(όῃ)οϊ 
δουλ(όω)ῶ-μεν 
δουλ(όη)ῶ-τε 
δουλ(όωγῶσι 
δουλ(όη)γῶ-τον 
δουλ(όη)ῶ-τον 


δουλ(όο)οῦ-μαι 
δουλ(όει)οῖ 
δουλ(όε)οῦ-ται 
δουλ(οό)ού-μεθα 
δουλ(όε)οῦ-σθε 
δουλ(όο)γοῦ-νται 
δουλ(όε)οῦ-σθον 


δουλ(όε)οῦ-σθον 


PRESENT 


ἐδουλ(οό)ού-μην 
ἐδουλ(όου)οῦ 
ἐδουλ(όε)οῦ-το 
ἐδουλ(οό)γού-μεθα 
ἐδουλ(όε)οῦ-σθε 
ἐδουλ(όογοῦ-ντο 
ἐδουλ(όε)οῦ-σθον 


ἐδουλ(οέ)ού-σθην 


MIDDLE 


δουλ(όω)ῶ-μαι 
δουλ(όῃ)οῖϊ 
δουλ(όη)ῶ-ται 
δουλ(οὠ)γώ-μεθα 
δουλ(όη)ῶ-σθε 
δουλ(όηγῶ-νται 
δουλ(όη)ῶ-σθον 


δουλ(όη)ῶ-σθον 


PRINCIPAL 


FuTURE 


AorIst 


δουλόω 


δουλώσω 


ἐδούλωσα 


CONTRACT VERBS 


Sovddw (Sovdo:w-) enslave 


OPTATIVE 


δουλ(όοι)οῖ-μι, -οίην 
δουλ(όοις)οῖ-ς, -οίης 
δουλ(όοιλοῖ, -οίη 
δουλ(όοι)οῖ-μεν, -οίημεν 
δουλ(όοι)οῖ-τε, -οίητε 


δουλ(όοι)οϊε-ν 
δουλ(όοι)οῖ-τον, -οίητον 
δουλ(οοί)οί-την, -οιήτην 


VOICE 


δουλ(οοί)οί- μην 
SovA(dot)ot-o 
Sovd(dor)ot-To 
δουλ(οοί)οί-μεθα 
δουλ(όοι)οῖ-σθε 
δουλ(όοιγοῖ-ντο 
δουλ(όοι)οῖ-σθον 
δουλ(οοί)οί-σθην 


PARTS 


PERFECT ACTIVE 


δεδούλωκα 


IMPERATIVE 


δούλ(οε)ου 
δουλ(οέ)ού-τω 


δουλ(όε)οῦ-τε 
δουλ(οό)ού-ντων 
δουλ(όε)οῦ-τον 
δουλ(οέ)ού-των 


δουλ(όου)οῦ 


δουλ(οέ)ού-σθω 


δουλ(όε)οῦ-σθε 


101 


INFINITIVE, 
PARTICIPLE 


INFINITIVE 
δουλ(όειν)οῦν 


PARTICIPLE 


δουλ(όων)ῶν 
(168 ο) 


INFINITIVE 


δουλ(όε)οῦ-σθαι 


PARTICIPLE 


δουλ(οέγού-σθων | Sovd(0d)ov-pevos 


δουλ(όε)οῦ-σθον 
δουλ(οέ)ού-σθων 


ῬΕΒΕΈΟΤ MIpDLE 


δεδούλωμαι 


—_— ee ὃ ὀῸ.-.----.-----Ἑ»ς-ς-Ἐ-ς-.ς-ς’’.- 
|r ΄΄΄΄΄ἧ΄΄΄ααΘ ΘΘ“΄ἙἙἙὁ. 
| 


AORIST PASSIVE 


ἐδουλώθην 


916 


917 


318 


319 


320 


102 Q-VERBS 


11. VowreL VERBS, CONTRACTING IN THE PRESENT 


Verbs in -άω, -éw, -ow contract the stem-vowel a, ε, ὁ 
in the present system with the succeeding vowel, in 
accordance with 29 and 30. (Paradigms, 313-315.) 


a. Note also that ce in the second syllable is re- 
tained (on the line or subscript), and that o with an 
i-diphthong (ει, οὐ, y) gives o. But 


b. In the infinitive, -ev (from -eev, 274) was no 
true diphthong (27 a); hence -d-ev gives -ἂν and 
-ό-ειν gives -ovv, without ει. 


Outside of the present system the stem-vowel a, ε, o 

is lengthened (28 a); a becomes a after ε, 1, or p, 

otherwise 7: θηράω hunt, fut. θηράσω, ete.; ἰάομαι 

heal, fut. ἰάσομαι, etc. ; tiwaw honor, fut. τιμήσω, ete. 
a. But χράομαι wse and ἀκροάομαι listen are irregular : 


χράομαι, χρήσομαι, ἐχρησάμην, κέχρημαι, 


f - f= 
ἀκροάομαι, ἀκροάσομα!, ἠκροάσάμην, ἠκρόᾶμαι. 


In the paradigms (818-315) the uncontracted vowels are in 
parenthesis, the contract syllable follows next ; for the uncon- 
tracted form read the parenthesis and omit the contract sylla- 
ble, for the contract form omit the parenthesis. 


In the present optative active the mode suffix -ἰη- is more 
common in the singular, but rare elsewhere. 


Seven verbs in -aw contract to η instead of ἃ. The most fre- 
quent are ζάω live, χράομαι use, dupaw thirst, πεινάω hunger: 


ζῶ, ζῃς, on, ἔζης, ἔζη, ἐζῆτε, ζῆν, 
χρῶμαι, χρῇ, χρῆται, ἐχρῆτο, ἐχρῆσθε, χρῆσθαι. 


CONTRACT VERBS 103 - 


Monosyllabic stems in -e contract only in the forms that give 
εἰ. Thus πλε- (see 257 b) sail makes πλεῖς, πλεῖ, ἔπλεις, ἔπλει, 


πλεῖν, but πλέω, πλέομεν, πλέῃς, πλέοιμι, etc. 


a. δέω bind sometimes contracts throughout, but δέω lack 
and δέομαι ask follow the rule. 


A few verb-stems in -a and -e, with still fewer in -o, 
do not lengthen that vowel in any system; some of 
these assume o in the perfect middle or in the 
passive system or both: 


Verb-stems yeda- laugh, σπα- draw, rere finish, 


Present γελάω σπάω τελέω 
Future γελάσομαι(392) σπάσω τελέσω 
Aorist ἐγέλασα ἔσπασα ἐτέλεσα 
Perf. Act. ἔσπακα τετέλεκα 
Perf. Mid. ----- ἔσπασμαι τετέλεσμαι 
Aor. Pass. ἐγελάσθην ἐσπάσθην ἐτελέσθην 


The stem aive- approve neither lengthens ε in 
Attic nor takes σ᾽; two compounds, ἐπ-αινέω praise 


and παρ-αινέω advise, are frequent. (But ἤνημαι is 
found.) 


a. In some verbs (as rede, cp. τὸ τέλος end) the o clearly 
belonged to the original stem, and has been lost except before 
μ and τ: others appear to have imitated these by inserting σ 
before » and τ. 


b. The perfect and pluperfect indicative middle have in 
the third plural a compound form; the whole inflection 
(showing also the form of the participle) is as follows : 


929 


924 


920 


926 


104 2-VERBS 


PERFECT INDICATIVE PLUPERFECT INDICATIVE 


S. 1. τετέλεσ-μαι ἐτετελέσ-μην 

2, τετέλε-σαι ἐτετέλε-σο 

3. τετέλεστ-ται ἐτετέλεσ-το 
P. 1. τετελέσ-μεθα ἐτετελέσ-μεθα 

2, τετέλε-σθε ἐτετέλε-σθε 

9. τετελεσ-μένοι εἰσί τετελεσ-μένοι ἦσαν 
D. ὃ, τετέλε-σθον ἐτετέλε-σθον 

3. τετέλε-σθον ἐτετελέσθην 


6. The future of τελέω finish and of καλέω call commonly 
drops o and contracts, thus becoming like the present: τελῶ, 
τελεῖς, τελεῖ, etc. 

So also μαχοῦμαι for μαχέσομαι, from μάχομαι (pax-, μαχε-) 
fight, and ἐλῶ for ἐλάσω, from ἐλαύνω (ἐλα-) drive. 


III. Liquip VERBS 


Verb-stems ending in 2, p, v, or p usually form the 
future and aorist stems, sometimes also the perfect 
active and the passive stems, in a slightly different 
way. (Liquid future, liquid aorist, a-perfect, ἡ - 
passive. ) 


In the future they add to the verb-stem the suffix 
-eo:e- (originally -evo:e-), and then contract. (Liquid 


future.) 


The inflection throughout—indicative, optative, infinitive, 
participle—is like that of contract presents in -éw (381). 


A contract future middle with the suffix -ceo;e- (so-called 
Doric future) is formed from the mute verbs πέπτω, πλέω, 


φεύγω. 


| 


: 


| 


LIQUID VERBS 105 


oar Liquid verbs usually form the aorist stem (indicative) 


328 


: 
| 


329 


by adding to the verb-stem the suffix -ate- and length- 
ening the stem-vowel ; a in the stem lengthens to a 
after « or p, otherwise to 7; € lengthens toa. (21: 
quid aorist.) 


a. But κερδαίνω (κερδαν-) gain makes ἐκέρδᾶνα. 


The inflection throughout is like that of the ca-aorist, omit- 
ting o (331). 

The present stem of these verbs may be of the forma- 
tive-vowel class (257), the c-class (259), or the nasal 
class (261), as shown by the principal parts. (See 


‘Verb-list.) Thus στέλλω (στελ-, σταλ-, 259 a) send, 


fut. στελῶ, aor. ἔστειλα, pf. act. ἔσταλκα, pf. mid. & 
σταλμαι (838, 339), aor. pass. ἐστάλην (334-837). 


Other frequent combinations are shown in the follow 
ing verbs; for other tenses of these verbs see Verb- 
list. 


PRESENT FUTURE AORIST 

αἴρω (ἀρ-, 259 Ὁ) raise, ἀὄρῶ (ap-eo:e-), ἦρα (ap-aie-), 
φαίνω (φαν-, 259 Ὁ) show, φανῶ, ἔφηνα, 
καθαίρω (καθαρ-, 259b) καθαρῶ, ἐκάθηρα, 

cleanse, 
κτείνω (κτεν-, 259 Ὁ) kill, κτενῶ, ἔκτεινα, 
κρίνω (κριν-, 259 b) decide, κρινῶ, ἔκρινα; 
ἀμύνω (ἀμυν-, 259 Ὁ) ἀμυνῶ, ἡμῦνα; 

ward off, 
μένω (pev-, 257) remain, μενῶ, ἔμεινα. 


a. Not all liquid verbs follow these formations ; especially 
several form the aorist according to 347. 


106 Ω -Έ ΒΒ 


991 Liquip FUTURE AND AorIST, 
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE 
wR στελ-ὦ 
2 στελ-εῖς 
3 oTe)-et 
Sie Panel στελ-οῦ-μεν 
g 2 στελ-εἴ-τε 
3 στελ-οῦσι 
Du. 2 στελ-εῖ-τον 
Ξὶ 3 στελ-εῖ-τον 
le eee 
Ξ3 ἜΣ Ὁ ἢ στελ-οῦ-μαι 
2 στελ-ῇ 
a 3 στελ-εῖ-ται 
Beta στελ-ού-μεθα 
Ξ 2 στελ-εῖ-σθε 
“ἢ 3 στελ-οῦ-νται 
ἢ) πα. στελ-εῖ-σθον 
3 στελ-εἴῖ-σθον 
Site. é-oTetha στείλω 
2 ἔ-στειλα-ς στείλῃς 
3 ἔ-στειλε στείλῃ 
Pee lege ἐ-στείλα-μεν στείλω-μεν 
3 2 ἐ-στείλα-τε στείλη-τε 
= δ , 
3 ἔ-στειλα-ν στείλωσι 
Du: 2 ἐ-στείλα-τον στείλη-τον 
ει 3 €-OTELAG-THV στείλη-τον 
Ξ Si. 1 ἐ-στειλά-μην στείλω-μαι 
2 ἐ-στείλω στείλῃ 
A 3 ἐ-στείλα-το στείλη-ται 
ἘΆΝ τὴ μά νι ἐ-στειλά-μεθα στειλώ-μεθα 
Ξ 2 é-oTeiha-o be στείλη-σθε 
ΠΣ 9 ἐ-στείλα-ντο στείλω-νται 
Du. 2 ἐ-στείλα-σθον στείλη-σθον 
3 ἐ-στειλά-σθην στείλη-σθον 


LIQUID VERBS 107 


στέλλω (στελ-, σταλ-) send 


OPTATIVE 


στελ-οῖ-μεν 
στελ-οῖ-τε 
στελ-οῖε-ν 
στελ-οῖ-τον 
στελ-οί-την 


στελ-οί-μην 
στελ-οῖ-ο 
στελ-οῖ-το 
στελ-οί-μεθα 
στελ-οῖ-σθε 
στελ-οῖ-ντο 
στελ-οῖ-σθον 
στελ-οί-σθην 


στείλαι-μι 


στείλαι-μεν 
στείλαι-τε 


στείλαι-τον 
στειλαί-την 


στειλαί-μην 
στείλαι-ο 
στείλαι-το 
στειλαί-μεθα 
στείλαι-σθε 
στείλαι-ντο 
στείλαι-σθον 
στειλαί-σθην 


στελ-οῖ-μι, -οίη-ν 
στελ-οῖ-ς, -οίη-ς 
στελ-οῖ, -οίη 


στείλεια-ς, -αι-ς 
στείλειε, και 


στείλεια-ν, -αιε-ν 


IMPERATIVE 


στεῖλον 
στειλά-τω 


στείλα-τε 
στειλά-ντων 
στείλα-τον 
στειλά-των 


στεῖλαι 
στειλά-σθω 


στείλα-σθε 

στειλά-σθων 
στείλα-σθον 
στειλά-σθων 


INFINITIVE AND 
PARTICIPLE 


INFINITIVE 
στελ-εῖν 


PARTICIPLE 
στελ-ῶὧν 
στελ-οῦσα 
στελ-οῦν 


INFINITIVE 
στελ-εῖ-σθαι 


PARTICIPLE 
στελ-ού-μενος 


INFINITIVE 
A 
στεῖλαι 


PARTICIPLE 
στείλας 
στείλαᾶσα 
στεῖλαν 


INFINITIVE 
στείλα-σθαι 


PARTICIPLE 
στειλά-μενος 


108 Ω - VERBS 


332 A-Perfect.—Some liquid and mute verbs make a per- 
fect active system without «x, with the tense-suftix 
-a- (indicative), generally with a change of vowel 
or consonant in the stem, often with intransitive or 
present meaning. Thus daivw (dav-) show, besides 
the xa-perfect πέφαγ-κα have shown, makes πέφηντ-α 
have appeared; κτείνω (κτεν-, xrov-) kill makes 
-Extov-a have killed (in prose always ἀπ-έκτοναλ ; 
ἐγείρω (ἐγερ-) waken, makes éyp-yyop-a am awake 
(Attic reduplication, 291 6); so also ἀκούω (ἀκου-) 
hear, ax-yko-a (for ἀκ-ήκορ-α, 27) have heard. 

333 The inflection is like that of the xa-perfect (synopsis, 336). 


334 H-Passive——Some liquid and mute verbs take -n:e- 
instead of -@y:e- as passive suffix ; an e in the verb- 
stem usually becomes a: as στέλλω (στελ-, σταλ-) 
send, ἐ-στάλ-ην. 

335 The inflection is like that of the 6y-passive, except that the 
imperative ending -6 is not changed (synopsis, 336). 


336 SYNOPSIS OF daivw (φαν-) show, IN 


Liquip AORIST A- PERFECT H - PASSIVE 


Indic. | πέφηνα᾽ 
ἔφηνα ἔπεφήνη ἐφάνην 
Subjv. φήνω πεφήνω φανῶ 


Opt. φήναιμι πεφήνοιμι φανείην 
Impy. φῆνον φάνηθι 
Inf. φῆναι πεφηνέναι φανῆναι 
Pte. φήνᾶς πεφηνώς φανείς 


a. The future passive is formed regularly (810): φανήσομαι, 
φανησοίμην, φανήσεσθαι, φανησόμενος. 


337 


338 


339 


LIQUID VERBS . 109 


Ὁ. H-passives are also formed from some mute verbs}; see 
in the Verb-list βλάπτω, γράφω, ῥΐπτω, στρέφω. 
Most verbs have only one of these passives ; if both 
are made, some difference of meaning may appear ; as 
from φαίνω (φαν-) show, ἐφάνθην was shown (pas- 
sive), ἐφάνην appeared (intransitive). 
In the perfect middle system the final consonant in 
the stem caused certain changes (paradigms, 339). 


PERFECT MIDDLE SYSTEM, LIQUID VERBS 


Inpvic. PERFECT PLUPERFECT IMPERATIVE 


πέφασ-μαι ἐπεφάσ-μην 
(πέφαν-σαι) (ἔπέφαν-σο) (πέφαν-σο) 
πέφαν-ται ἔπέφαν-το πεφάν-θω 
πεφάσ-μεθα ἐπεφάσ-μεθα 
πέφαν-θε ἐπέφαν-θε πέφαν-θε 
πεφασμένοι εἰσί πεφασμένοι ἦσαν πεφάν-θων 
πέφαν-θον ἐπέφαν-θον πέφαν-θον 
πέφαν-θον ἔπεφάν-θην πεφάν-θων 
SUBJUNCTIVE OPTATIVE INFINITIVE 
πεφασμένος ὦ πεφασμένος εἴην πεφάν-θαι 
Inpic, PERFECT PLUPERFECT IMPERATIVE 
Si. 1 ἔσταλ-μαι ἐστάλ-μην 
2 ἔσταλ-σαι ἔσταλ-σο ἔσταλ-σο 
3| ἔσταλ-ται ~ ἔσταλ-το ἐστάλ-θω 
Pl. 1. ἐστάλ-μεθα ἐστάλ-μεθα 
9 ἔσταλ-θε ἔσταλ-θε ἔσταλ-θε. 
8. ἐσταλμένοι εἰσί. ἐσταλμένοι ἦσαν ἐστάλ-θων 
Du. 9, ἔσταλ-θον ἔσταλ-θον ἔσταλ-θον 
3| ἔσταλ-θον ἐστάλ-θην ἐστάλ-θων 
SUBJUNCTIVE OPTATIVE INFINITIVE 
ἐσταλμένος ὦ ἐσταλμένος εἴην ἐστάλ-θαι 


940 


941 


110 02-VERBS 


a. The endings -vra, -vro after a consonant being almost 
unpronounceable, compound forms are used. 

b. In the subjunctive and optative compound forms are used. 

6. Forms in -voa and -νσὸ do not occur; compound forms 
may have been used. 

ἃ. See also 50 ἃ and 55 b: πέφασ-μαι for re-hav-par, ἐ-στάλ- 
θαι for ἐσσταλ-σθαι. 

IV. Mure VERsBs 

The present system of mute verbs may be of the 
formative - vowel class (257), the 7-class (258), the 
i-class (259), the inceptive class (260), or the nasal 
class (261). In other systems many sound-changes 
occur where consonants come together. 


The formation of the various tense-stems is illustrated 
in the following : 


(ypad-) write (pid-, pup-) throw 


Present γράφω (257) ῥίπτω (258) 
Future γράψω (45 a) ῥίψω 
Aorist ἔγραψα (45 a) ἔρριψα (48) 
Pf. Act. γέγραφα (882) ἔρριφα 


Pf. Μιὰ. γέγραμμαι (44 a) ἐρριμμαὶ 
Aor. Pass. ἐγράφην (384) ἐρρίφθην and 


ἐρρίφην 
(BraB-) injure (πεμπ-) send 
Present βλάπτω (258) πέμπω 
Future βλάψω πεμψω 
Aorist Ξἔβλαψα ἔπεμψα 
Pf. Act. βέβλαφα (842 b) πέπομφα (842 b) 
Pf. Mid. BéBrappac πέπεμμαι (344 a) 


Aor. Pass. ἐβλάφθην (43 a) ἐπέμφθην 
ἐβλάβην 


«a 


MUTE VERBS 


(πειθ-) persuade 


111 


(yupvad-) exercise 


Present πείθω γυμνάζω (259 ἃ, 56 ἃ) 

Future πείσω (45 Ὁ) γυμνάσω (45 b) 

Aorist ἔπεισα ἐγύμνασα 

Pf. Act. πέπεικα (842 a) γεγύμνακα (842 a) 
πέποιθα (332) 

Pf. Mid. πέπεισμαι (44 6) γεγύμνασμαι (44 ο) 

Aor. Pass. ἐπείσθην (48 b) ἐγυμνάσθην (48 Ὁ) 


(ἀρχ-) be first, begin, rule 


(ἀλλαγ-) change 


Present ἄρχω ἀλλάσσω (259 ο, 56 c) 
Future ἄρξω (45 a) ἀλλάξω 
Aorist ἦρξα ἤλλαξα 
Pf. Act. ἦρχα ἤλλαχα (842 Ὁ) 
Pf. Mid. ὄργμαι (44 bd) ἤλλαγμαι 
Aor. Pass. ἤρχθην ἠλλάχθην 
ἠλλάγην 


a. In the xa-perfect ἃ r-mute disappears before x. 


b. In the a-perfect most stems ending in a z- or x-mute 
aspirate the mute, often changing the stem vowel also. 


The sound-changes in the perfect middle system are shown in 
the paradigms (845). 


a. In the perfect middle of πέμπω (πεμπ-) send, πέπεμ-μαι is 
written, since ppp can hardly be pronounced otherwise than 
as pp. So πεπέμ-μεθα, πεπεμ-μένος. 

Ὁ. ἐλέγχω (ἐλεγχ-) test makes ἐλήλεγ-μαι, ἐληλεγ-μένος (drop- 
ping one y from γγ-μ), but ἐλήλεγξαι, etc. 

6. Older writers have in the perf. and plup. ind. mid. 3d 
plu. a few forms in -ara, -aro, before which a z- or «x-mute is 


(Cp. 


aspirated : τετάχ-αται, ἐτετάχ-ατο, for τεταγμένοι εἰσί, ἦσαν. 


270 a.) 


345 


Q-VERBS 


PERFECT MIDDLE SYSTEM, MUTE VERBS 


Inpic. PERFECT 


Inpic. PLUPERFECT 


Sigel 
2 
3 
So bitte 
yy) 
3 
Du. 2 
3 
Si, 71 
2 
ἐν 
tA 
2 
3 
Di? 
3 
Si.) ἡ 
9 
τ 
τὰ πο 4} 
2 
3 
Du. 2 
a 


πέπεισ-μαι 
πέπει-σαι 
πέπεισ-ται 
πεπείσ-μεθα 
πέπει-σθε 
πεπεισμένοι εἰσί 
πέπει-σθον 
πέπει-σθον 


SUBJUNCTIVE 


, io 
πεπεισμένος ὦ 


γέγραμ-μαι 
γέγραψαι 
γέγρατ-ται 
γεγράμ-μεθα 
γέγραφ-θε (55 b) 
γεγραμμένοι εἰσί 
γέγραφ-θον 
γέγραφ-θον 


SUBJUNCTIVE 


γεγραμμένος ὦ 


ἤλλαγ-μαι 
ἤλλαξαι. 
ἤλλακ-ται 
ἠλλάγ-μεθα 
ἤλλαχ-θε 
ἠλλαγμένοι εἰσί 
ἤλλαχ-θον 
ἤλλαχ-θον 


SUBJUNCTIVE 


ἠλλαγμένος ὦ 


ἐπεπείσ-μην 
ἐπέπει-σο 
ἐπέπεισ-το 
ἔπεπείσ-μεθα 
ἐπέπει-σθε 
πεπεισμένοι ἦσαν 
ἐπέπει-σθον 
ἐπεπεί-σθην 


OPTATIVE 


πεπειμένος εἴην 


ἐγεγράμ-μην 
ἐγέγραψο 
ἐγέγρατπ-το 
ἐγεγράμ-μεθα 
ἐγέγραφ-θε 
γεγραμμένοι ἦσαν 
ἐγέγραφ-θον 
ἐγεγράφ-θην 


OPTATIVE 


γεγραμμένος εἴην 


ἠλλάγ-μην 
ἤλλαξο 
ἤλλακ-το 
ἠλλάγ-μεθα 
ἤλλαχ-θε 
ἠλλαγμένοι ἦσαν 
ἤλλαχ-θον 
ἠλλάχ-θην 
OPTATIVE 


ἠλλαγμένος εἴην 


IMPERATIVE 


γεγράφ-θαι | 


πέπει-σο 
πετεί-σθω 


πέπει-σθε 

πεπεί-σθων 
πέπει-σθον 
πεπεί-σθων 


INFINITIVE 


πεπεῖ-σθαι 


γέγραψο 
γεγράφ-θω 


γέγραφ-θε 

γεγράφ-θων 
γέγραφ-θον 
γεγράφ-θων 


INFINITIVE 


ἤλλαξο 
ἠλλάχ-θω 


ἤλλαχ-θε 
ἠλλάχ-θων 
ἤλλαχ-θον 
ἠλλάχ-θων 
INFINITIVE 


ἠλλάχ-θαι 


MUTE VERBS 113 


346 a. Futures in -@.—Verbs in -iZw (verb-stems in -ιδ-) 


347 


348 


349 


commonly make the future in -ιἰῶ, dropping 6 and 
taking the suffix -co:e, which then contracts as in 
the liquid future (824): κομίζω (κομιδ-}) carry, κομιῶ. 
In later Greek the forms in -ίσω occur. 


Ὁ. A few verbs in -άζω (stems in -ad-) drop o in the future 
and contract, like presents in -éw (816) : βιβάζω (βιβαδ-) make 


90, βιβάσω, contracted to βιβῶ, βιβᾷς, etc. 


Formatiye-Vowel or Thematic Aorist—Many mute 
verbs and some liquid verbs make the aorist active 


and middle by adding the suffix -o:e to the verb- 


stem, in the weak form if it has one. 

The inflection is like that of a present system; in 
meaning this aorist does not differ from the oa- 
aorist : λείπω (λειπ-, λιπ-) leave, ἔλιπον (348). 


FORMATIVE-VOWEL AORIST 


ACTIVE MIDDLE 
ἔ-λιπ-ο-ν ἐ-λιπ-ό-μην 
ἔ-λιπ-ε-ς ἐ-λίπ-ου 
ἔ-λιπ-ε ἐ-λίπ-ε-το 

etc. ete. 


Subjv. λίπ-ω λίπ-ω-μαι 
Opt. λίπ-οι-μι λιπ-οί-μην 
Inpv. λίπε ο λιπ-οοῦ 

Inf. λιπ-εῖν λιπ-έ-σθαι 


Pte. λιπ-ών λιπ-ό-μενος 


The accent of the infinitive and participle and of the im- 
perative middle second singular is on the formative vowel. 
This gives -εἶν (for -é-ev), -€-cOa, -dv, and -od (for -é(c)o). 


114 , Ω - VERBS 


a. Five verbs also accent the formative vowel in the impy. 
second sing. active: εἰπέ say, ἐλθέ come, εὑρέ find, ἰδέ see, λαβέ 
take. But in compounds their accent is recessive. 

350 Verbs that make a formative-vowel aorist are very fre- 
quent, and are often irregular. Among the commonest 
are ; 


PRESENT AORIST 

1, λαμβάνω (λαβ-, \nB-) ἔλαβον, Ad Ba, λάβοιμι, λαβέ 
take, (349 a), λαβεῖν, λαβών. 

2. φεύγω (devy-, φυγ-) ἔφυγον, φύγω, φύγοιμι, φύγε, 
flee, φυγεῖν, φυγών. 

ὃ. πάσχω (παθ-, 260 b) ἔπαθον, πάθω, πάθοιμι, πάθε, 
suffer, παθεῖν, παθών. 

4, βάλλω (βαλ-, βλη-) ἔβαλον, βάλω, βάλοιμι, βάλε, 
throw, βαλεῖν, βαλών. 

5. γίγνομαι (γεν-, γον-, ἐγενόμην, γένωμαι, yevot- 
yevn-) become, μὴν, γενοῦ, γενέσθαι, ye 

νόμενος. 

6. ἔχω (σεχ-, ἐχ-, σχ-, ἔσχον, σχῶ, σχοίην, σχές 

σχη-) have, hold, (271), σχεῖν, σχών. 


(In compounds the subjunctive and imperative have reces- 
Sive accent: παράσχω, παράσχες.) 


(. ὁράω (dpa-, ἰδ- ; 891) εἶδον (267), ἴδω, ἴδοιμι, ἰδέ 


See, (349 a), ἰδεῖν, ἰδών. 
, i > ¥ x > 2 
8. φημί (φαϊη-, fem, εἶπον, εἴπω, εἴποιμι, εἶπέ 
391) say, (349 a), εἰπεῖν, εἰπών. 
9. αἱρέω (aipey-, ἕλ-) εἷλον, Edw, ἔλοιμι, EAE, ἑλεῖν, 
8612, ἑλών. 


10. ἄγω (ay-) lead, drive, ἤγαγον (with reduplica- 
tion), ἀγάγω, ἀγάγοιμι, 
ἄγαγε, ἀγαγεῖν, ἀγαγών. 


351 


MI- VERBS 115 


Besides the formative-vowel aorists εἶπον said (φημι) and 
ἤνεγκον bore (φέρω) are found forms of an aorist in a: εἶπα, 
εἶπας, etc., and ἤνεγκα, ἤνεγκας, etc. 

Verbal Adjectives are formed by adding -τός (-r7, -τόν) 
and -réos (-ἃ, -ov) to the verb-stem as it appears in 
the aorist passive (observing the rule in 48); some- 
times an extra o appears before the τ. 


Most verbals in -ros either (1) denote the capability 
or possibility of the action of the verb (cp. Latin 
-bilis, English -adle), or (2) have the force of a per- 
fect passive participle (Latin -tus): ζηλωτός enviable 
or envied from ζηλόω, νοη-τός thinkable from νοέω, 
ποιη-τός made from ποιέω. 


a. Some verbals in -ros have an active meaning: ῥυ-τός 
flowing from ῥέω. 

b. Compound verbals in -ros in the first meaning accent 
the ultima and have three endings; in the second meaning 
they have recessive accent and two endings: διαβατός (-ή, -dv) 
fordable from διαβαίνω, ἄγραπτος (-ov) unwritten from γράφω. 
The verbal in -réos has the general force (but not all 
the uses) of the Latin gerundive or participle in 


ndus: πρᾶκ-τέος requiring to be done, faciendus. 


B. VERBS OF THE Μι- CONJUGATION 


The distinction between the w-conjugation and the 
pe-conjugation applies only to the present system. In 
the pi-conjugation the present stem does not end in 
-ore-, and the fuller endings -μι, -s, -σι, -ἄσι, -σαν 
(263) are used. There are two classes : 

(1) Nasal Class (cp. 261).—The suffix -vu:v-, after a 
vowel -ννυῦ-, 1s added to the verb-stem : 


967 


358 


359 


116 MI- VERBS 


VERB-STEM PRES, STEM PRES. IND. 
. - ’ - 
δεικ- point at, O€LKVUSD-, δείκνῦμι, 
. - , - 
κερα- Mie, KEPQAVVU:U-, κεραννῦμι. 


(2) Root Class. 
always a root, sometimes reduplicated : 


the verb-stem, 


VERB-STEM PRES. INDIC. 
dain- say, φημι (19 ἃ), 
δοΐω- qe, δίδωμι, 
σταϊη- set up, ἵστημι (257 a, 54). 


I. VERBS IN τνυμι 


Verbs in -νῦμι show the simplest form of wu-present 
(paradigm, 360). 

(1) The final stem-vowel is long in the singular of 
the active indicative present and imperfect, and in~ 
the second singular of the active imperative ; else- 
where it 1s short. 

(2) The endings are unchanged: -ἄσι and -σαν 
are used in the active third plural ; -@ is omitted. 

(3) The infinitive active takes -ναὶ and accents 
the penult (296 a). 

(4) The active participle accents the final vowel 
of the present stem (170). 

(5) The subjunctive and optative follow the -con- 
jugation. Sometimes the indicative also follows the 
w-conjugation. 

The other verbs of this class are the following, which see in 
the Verb-list : 

(a) Vowel verbs: κεράννῦμι mia, κρέμάννθμι hang, πετάννῦμι 


spread, oxedavvip scatter, σβέννυμι quench, povvipe strengthen, 
oTpwvvipe spread. 


360 


ΜΙ - VERBS 


ΕἸ 


(Ὁ) Liquid verbs: ὄλλυμι lose, destroy, ὄμνυμι swear. 
(c) Mute verbs, in -Ὑ : Cevyvipe Join, μείγνυμι mia, πήγνῦμι 
fix, ῥήγνυμι break. 


Δείκνυμι (δεικ-) point at 


Si. δείκ-νῦ-μι 
δείκ-νυ-ς 
δείκ-νῦ-σι 
δείκ-νυ-μεν 
δείκ-νυ-τε 
δεικ-νύ-ἂσι 
δείκ-νυ-τον 
δείκ-νυ-τον 


Pres. 


dt 


Du. 


ἐ-δείκ-νῦυ-ν 
ἐ-δείκ-νυ-ς 
ἐ-δείκ-νῦ 
ἐ-δείκ-νυ-μεν 
ἐ-δείκ-νυ-τε 
ἐ-δείκ-νυ-σαν 
ἐ-δείκ-νυ-τον 
ἐ-δεικ-νύ-την 


‘Imperf. | Si. 


δεικ-νύ-ω, etc. 


ACTIVE | MIDDLE (PASSIVE) 


δείκ-νυ-σθον 


δεικ-νύ-ω-μαι, ete. 


δείκ-νυ-μαι 
δείκ-νυ-σαι 
δείκ-νυ-ται 
δεικ-νύ-μεθα 
δείκ-νυ-σθε 
δείκ-νυ-νται 
δείκ-νυ-σθον 


ἐ-δεικ-νύ-μην 
ἐ-δείκ-νυ-σο 
ἐ-δείκ-νυ-το 
ἐ-δεικ-νύ-μεθα 
ἐ-δείκ-νυ-σθε 
ἐ-δείκ-νυ-ντο 
ἐ-δείκ-νυ-σθον 
ἐ-δεικ-νύ-σθην 


μι μὰ] CO DO OO DOR OO DF | Oo DH δ τὸ eK we 


δεικ-νύτ-οι-μι, ete. 


δείκ-νῦ 
δεικ-νύ-τω 
δείκ-νυ-τε 
δεικ-νύ-ντων 
δείκ-νυ-τον 
δεικ-νύ-των 


Impy. | Si. 


bo GO bO CO το 


ew) 


δεικ-νύ-ναι 


Principal parts : 
δείκνυμι, δείξω, ἔδειξα, δέδειχα, δέδειγμαι, ἐδείχθην. 


δεικ-νυ-οί-μην, etc. 


4 A , 
δεικ-νὺς, -νῦσα, -νύν 


δείκ-νυ-σο 
δεικ-νύ-σθω 
δείκ-νυ-σθε 
δεικ-νύ-σθων 
δείκ-νυ-σθον 
δεικ-νύ-σθων 


δείκ-νυ-σθαι 


δεικ-νύ-μενος 


118 


MI- VERBS 


II. VeRBS IN “HLL, WITH STEM IN ὍΣΣ 


361 Verbs of the root class (857) with present stem in 


-ain- follow ἵστημι (862). 


except as follows: 
(1) ἄ-ἄσι contracts to -aou. 


362 


Si. 


PL 


Du. 


Si. 


ΤῊΣ 


Du. 


ἘΞ 


bo 


GD bo ὁ Ww μὶ CO 


BO kOe 


Go 


Go bo 


INDICATIVE 


PRESENT 


ἵ-στη-μι 
ἵ-στη-ς 
ἵτσστη-σι 
ἵτστα-μεν 
t-oTa-Te 
ἱ-στᾶσι 
ἵ-στα-τον 
ἵτστα-τον 


ἵτστα-μαι 
(-oTa-oat 
{-oTa-Tat 
ἱ-στά-μεθα 
ἵ-στα-σθε 
ἵτστα-νται 
ἵ-στα-σθον 
ἵ-στα-σθον 


IMPERFECT 


ἵ-στη-ν 
-στη-ς 
-στη 
ἵτστα-μεν 
ἵτστα-τε 


7 


ἰἱ-στα-σαν 


os 


€ 


eit 


ἵ-στα-τον 
ἱ-στά-την 


ἱ-στά-μην 
ἵτστα-σο 


ἵτστα-το 
ἱ-στά-μεθα 


They are like δείκνῦμι 


_ PRESENT SYSTEM OF 


ACTIVE 


SUBJUNCTIVE 


MIDDLE 


led 


ἱ-στῶ-μαι 
ἱ-στῇ 
ἱ-στῆ-ται 
ἱ-στώ-μεθα 
ἱ-στῆ-σθε 
ἱ-στῶ-νται 
ἱ-στῆ-σθον 
ἱ-στῆ-σθον 


ΜΙ- VERBS 119 


(2) The subjunctive contracts -ἄω- and -ἄη- to -ὥ- 
and -7-. 

(3) The optative mode-suffix is -cy-, or in the plu- 
ral and dual more often -i- (-ve- in the third plural), 
added directly to the stem. ‘The accent never stands 
before the mode-suffix. (Cp. the passive aor. opt.) 


ἵστημι (στα:η-) set, stand 


ea (ls ihe, Ara elo yee 
VOICE 


OPTATIVE IMPERATIVE PELE, 
i-oTain-v 
i-oTain-s ἵστη INFINITIVE 
ἱ-σταίη ἱ-στά-τω ἱ-στά-ναι 
ἱ-σταῖ-μεν, -αίη-μεν 
ἱ-σταῖ-τε, -αίη-τε t-oTa-Te PARTICIPLE 
ἱ-σταῖε-ν, -ain-cav ἱ-στά-ντων i-oTas 
ἱ-σταῖ-τον, -aln-Tov {-oTa-Tov ἱ-στᾶσα 
ἱ-σταί-την, -αιή-την ἱ-στά-των ἱ-στάν (162 b) 


VOICE 


ἱ-σταί-μην 
ἱ-σταῖ-ο 
ἱ-σταί-το 
ἱ-σταί-μεθα 


.“ 


ἵ-στα-σο 
ἱ-στά-σθω 


INFINITIVE 
- Ὥστα-σθαι 


Ὁ 


ἱ-σταῖ-σθε ἵ-στα-σθε PARTICIPLE 


ἱ-σταῖ-ντο 
ἱ-σταῖ-σθον 
ἱ-σταί-σθην 


ἱ-στά-σθων 


ἵ-στα-σθον 
ἱ-στά-σθων 


ἱ-στά-μενος 
ἱ-στα-μένη 
etc. 


120 ΜΙ-ΈΒΒΒΚ 


863 Ἵστημι and its compounds are very common, and the 
different tenses often require different translations. 
The fundamental distinctions are shown in the follow- 
ing table: 


TRANSITIVE INTRANSITIVE PASSIVE 


ACTIVE Inpir. Mip, 
place oneself be placed 
set for oneself 


Present | ἵστημι | ἵσταμαι ἵσταμαι ἵσταμαι 
Future | στήσω | στήσομαι στήσομαι | σταθήσομαι 
Aorist | ἔστησα ἐστησάμην | ἔστην ἐστάθην 
Perfect ἕστηκα 

stand 
Pluperf. εἱστήκη 

was stand- 

Ing 

Fut. Pf. ἑστήξω 


shall stand 


The intransitive forms also serve for the passive, as with 
many other verbs. For ἔστην see 366, for ἑστήξω see 864. 


ἃ. Similarly in compounds : 
Present ἀφίστημι set off from, cause to revolt, 
mid. revolt, pass. am set off ; 


Future ἀποστήσω shall cause to revolt, 
mid. shall revolt, pass. shall be set off ; 


Sa-Aor, ἀπέστησα caused to revolt, 
mid. got to revolt, pass. was set off ; 


Root-Aor. ἀπέστην revolted, 


Perfect ἀφέστηκα am in revolt, 
ἀφειστήκη was in revolt. 


904 


365 


366 


MI- VERBS Ἴ] 


Likewise καθίστημι set down, settle, καταστήσω 


shall settle (trans.), κατέστησα settled (trans.), κατέ 


στὴν became setiled, καθέστηκα am settled, καθειστήκη 
was settled. 


A future perfect active ἑστήξω shall stand is formed by add- 
ing the future suffix and endings to ἑστηκ- as a perfect stem. 
In like manner θνήσκω die forms τεθνήξω shall be dead from 
τέθνηκα. 


The following verbs (which see in the Verb-list) are like 
ἵστημι in the present system: ὀνίνημι benefit, mid. be advan- 
taged, πίμπλημι fill, πίμπρημι set on fire (more frequent in the 
compound ἐμπίπρημι), ἄγαμαι admire, δύναμαι can, ἐπίσταμαι 
know, understand. ἐδύνα(σ)ο regularly becomes ἐδύνω. 

a. The deponents in this list have recessive accent in the 
subjv. and opt., herein differing from torn: 

Subjv. δύνωμαι, δύνῃ, δύνηται, etc., 

Opt. δύναιο, ἐπίσταιτο, ἄγαιντο. 

Likewise in the root-aorist (866) ὠνήμην from ὀνίνημι: 
ὄναιο, dvaito, ὄναιντο, and from ἐπριάμην (pres. ὠνέομαι) : πρίω- 
μαι, etc. 


Root-Aorist.—Some w- and pu-verbs, all of them hav- 
ing vowel-stems, make an active aorist in which the 
endings are added directly to the root as tense-stem 
(root-aorist). In so far it is like the pi-present and 
imperfect. In meaning it is like other aorists; but 
if the verb has also a oa-aorist, that is causative and 
the root-aorist intransitive. Thus from torn, €o- 
moa 7 set or caused to stand, ἔστην I placed myself 
or took my place; from γιγνώσκω recognize, ἔγνων ; 
from δύω enter, ἔδῦν. (Paradigms, 367.) 


123 MI- VERBS 
367 Root-Aorists : 
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE OPTATIVE 


ἔ-στη-ν στῶ σταίη-ν 

ἔστη-Ξς στῇς σταίη-ς 

ἔ-στη στῇ σταίη 

ἔ-ςστη-μεν στῶ-μεν σταῖ-μεν, σταίη-μεν 
ἔ-στη-τε στῆ-τε σταῖ-τε, σταίη-τε 
ἔστησαν στῶσι σταῖε-ν, σταίη-σαν 
ἔ-στη-τον στῆ-τον σταῖ-τον, σταίη-τον 
ἐ-στή-την στῆ-τον σταί-την, σταιή-την 


SCRE NO δυὸ μὶ διὸ μαὶ 


ἔ-γνω-ν γνῶ γνοίη-ν 

ἔ-γνω-ς γνῴς yvoin-s 

ἔνγνω γνῷ γνοίη ; 
ἔ-γνω-μεν γνῶ-μεν γνοῖ-μεν, γνοίη-μεν 
ἔ-γνω-τε γνῶ-τε γνοῖ-τε, γνοίη-τε 
ἔ-γνω-σαν γνοῖε-ν, γνοίη-σαν 
ἔ-γνω-τον γνοῖ-τον, γνοίη-τον 


> 


ἐ-γνώ-την γνοί-την, γνοιή-την 


1 
2 
3 
1 
2 
3 
2 
Θ9 


Co bo ὠθ WF ὧδ De 


368 The root-vowel is long (y, ὦ, v) before a single 
consonant, short (a, ε, 0, v) before a vowel or 
two consonants. ‘The endings are added without 
change. 


MI- VERBS 123 


ἔστην, ἔγνων, vv 


—- ——————_— ——_—$———— 


IMPERATIVE INFINITIVE, PARTICIPLE 


INFINITIVE 
στῆ-θι στῆ-ναι 
στή-τω 

PARTICIPLE 
στῆ-τε oTds, στᾶσα, στάν 
στά-ντων (162 b) 
στῆ-τον 
στή-των 


INFINITIVE 
γνῶτθι γνῶ-ναι 
γνώ-τω 


PARTICIPLE 
γνῶ-τε γνούς, γνοῦσα, γνόν 
γνό-ντων (169) 
γνώ-τον 
γνώ-των 


INFINITIVE 
δῦ-θι δῦ-ναι 
δύ-τω 

PARTICIPLE 
δῦ-τε Svs, δῦσα, δύν 
δύ-ντων (170) 
δῦ-τον 
δύ-των 


In the subjunctive and optative a, ε, o contract 
with the mode-suffix; on gives ὦ, on gives ῳ. 

a. The entire system is like the y-passive aorist 
(334, 336), except for the final vowel of the stem, and 
some resulting contractions. 


124 ΜΙἝ- ΕΒ ΒΚ 


369 Root-aorist forms are also found, some of them frequently, 
from 


(2) βαίνω (Ba) go: 
ἔβην, BO, Bainv, βῆθι, βῆναι, Bas. Subjv. Ba, Bys, By, etc. 
-διδράσκω (dpa:a-) run away, only in composition, esp. azo- 
διδράσκω : 
par, pas, etc., dpa, δρᾷς, etc., δραίην, δρᾶθι, δρᾶναι, Spas. 
κτείνω (Ktev-, Kta:y-) Kill (root-aor. poetic) : 
ἔκταν, ἔκταᾶς, ἔκτα ; ptc. κτᾶς, κτάμενος. 
ὀνίνημι (ὀνα:η-) benefit (root-aor. intr.) : 
ὠνήμην, ὀναίμην (865 a), ὄνησο, ὄνασθαι, ὀνήμενος. 
πέτομαι (πετ-, πτα:η-) fly: 
ἔπτην, πταίην, πτῆναι, πτᾶς (act. poetic), 
mid. ἐπτάμην, πτάσθαι, πτάμενος. 
Root (τλα;η-) endure: 
ἔτλην, TAG, τλαίην, τλῆθι, τλῆναι, TAGS. 
Root (πρια-) buy (present ὠνέομαι) : 
ἐπριάμην, πρίωμαι (865 a), πριαίμην, πρίασθαι, πριάμενος. 
φθάνω (φθα:η-) get ahead of: 
ἔφθην, $00, φθαίην, φθῆναι, das. 
(0) σβέννυμι (σβε:η-) quench : 
ἔσβην went out, σβῆναι. 
(c) ἁλίσκομαι (ἅλ-, ddo:w-) am captured : 
ἑάλων OF ἥλων, GAG, ἁλοίην, ἁλῶναι, ἁλούς. 
βιόω (βιο:ω-) live: ᾿ 1] 
ἐβίων, Bid, βιοίην, βιῶναι, βιούς. 
(d) φύω (φυ:Ὁ-) produce : | 
ἔφῦν was born, am, φύω, φῦναι, dis. 


370 Root-Perfect.—A few verbs have some perfect active 
forms without a tense-suffix, the endings being added| 
directly to the reduplicnted verb-stem, always a root.. 
Thus 

(1) From ἵστημι, besides the regular ka-pertect, 
occur, in the intransitive sense, stand, 


MI- VERBS 125 


Ind. ἕστα-μεν Subjv. ἑστῶ Inf. ἑστά-ναι 
ἕστα-τε ἑστῶμεν 
ἑστᾶσι ἑστῶσι Ptc. ἑστώς 
ἕστα-τον Opt. éoTainv, ete. (173) 
Plup. ἕστασαν = Impv. ἕστα-θι, etc. 


(2) From Baiva, besides βέβηκα am gone, stand 
fast, occur ind. 3d pl. βεβᾶσι, subjy. 3d. pl. βεβῶσι, 
pte. BeBds, like ἑστώς. 
| (3) From γίγνομαι, besides γέγονα, occurs γεγώς, 
like ἑστώς. 

(4) From θνήσκω, besides τέθνηκα am dead, occur 


Ind, τέθνα-μεν Opt. τεθναίην 
τέθνα-τε Impv. τέθνα-θι 
τεθνᾶσι Inf. τεθνά-ναι 
τέθνα-τον Pte. τεθνεώς (179) 


Plup. ἐτέθνα-σαν 


(5) Besides δέδοικα (δι-, δει-, δοι-) fear, and the 


a-perfect δέδια, δέδιε, δεδιέναι, occur 


Ind. δέδι-μεν Plup. ἐδέδι-σαν 
δέδι-τε Subjv. δεδίω 
δεδί-ἃσι Pte. δεδιώς, δεδιυῖα, δεδιός 


(6) From ἔοικα (ἰκ-, εἰκ-, οἰκ-) am like, appear, 
plup. ἐῴκη, occur 


Ind. ἔοιγ-μεν ᾿ Inf. εἰκέναι 
εἴξασι ὙΓΟΣ εἰκώς, εἰκυῖα, εἰκός 


IL, Δίδωμι, Τίθημι, Ἵημι 
871 Three very common γο 1} 8---δίδωμι give, τίθημι put, 
imp send—are nearly like ἵστημι, but agree in cer- 
tain differences from ἵστημι in the present and root- 
aorist systems, as also in forming a peculiar κα- 
aorist. (Paradigms, 372-374.) 


126 MI- VERBS 


δίδωμι (S0:w-) give 


INDICATIVE 
| ° SUBJUNCTIVE 
PRESENT IMPERFECT | 

.- | ol 1 δί-δω-μι ἐ-δί-δουν δι-δῶ 
Ξ 2. δί-δω-ς ἐ-δί-δους δι-δῷ-ς 
a 3| δί-δω-σι ἐ-δί-δου δι-δῴ 
εἰ ΡῚ. 1) δί-δο-μεν ἐ-δί-δο-μεν δι-δῶ-μεν 
ξ 2) δί-δο-τε ἐ-δί-δο-τε δι-δῶ-τε 
z 3| δι-δό-ἂσι ἐ-δί-δο-σαν δι-δῶ-σι 
| | Du. 9) δί-δο-τον ἐ-δί-δο-τον δι-δῶ-τον 
ΓΞ 9. δί-δο-τον ἐ-δι-δό-την δι-δῶ-τον 
a δ᾽. 1) δί-δο-μαι ἐ-δι-δό-μην δι-δῶ-μαι 
Β 92.) δί-δο-σαι ἐ-δί-δο-σο δι-δῷ 
Ξ 3| δί-δο-ται ἐ-δί-δο-το δι-δῶ-ται 
ες | Pl. 1} δι-δό-μεθα ἐ-δι-δό-μεθα δι-δώ-μεθα 
Bs 2| δί-δο-σθε ἐ-δί-δο-σθε δι-δῶ-σθε 
᾿ 3| δί-δο-νται ἐ-δί-δο-ντο δι-δῶ-νται 
1). 2| δί-δοσσθον ἐδί-δο-σθον δι-δῶ-σθον 
m4 3| δί-δο-σθον ἐ-δι-δό-σθην δι-δῶ-σθον 
ERG ΣΙ (ἔ-δω-καὶ) δῶ 
Ξ 2 (€-8-Kas) 50-s 
= 3 (ἔ-δω-κε) δῷ 
eile | eel ἔ-δο-μεν δῶ-μεν 
Ὁ 2 ἔ-δο-τε δῶ-τε 
τῷ 3 ἔ-δο-σαν δῶ-σι 
5 | Du. 2 €-50-Tov δῶ-τον 
Ξ 3 ἐ-δό-την δῶ-τον 
titi, 4] ἐ-δό-μην δῶ-μαι 
Ξ 2 é-5ov δῷ 
Ξ 3 ἔ-δο-το δῶ-ται 
Ἶ Lew ἐ-δό-μεθα δώ-μεθα 
2 2 ἔ-δο-σθε δῶ-σθε 
ἐξ 8 ἔ-δο-ντο δῶ-νται 
ΕΔ. 1). ἢ ἔ-δο-σθον δῶ-σθον 
τὸ 3 ἐ-δό-σθην δῶ-σθον 


δίδωμι (δο:ω-) give 


| 


MI-VERBS 


INFINITIVE, 


OPTATIVE IMPERATIVE ii pricrere 
δι-δοίη-ν 
δι-δοίη-ς δί-δου INFINITIVE 
δι-δοίη δι-δό-τω δι-δό-ναι 
δι-δοῖ-μεν δι-δοίη-μεν PARTICIPLE 
δι-δοῖ-ττε  81-S0in-Te δί-δο-τε δι-δούς 
δι-δοῖεν δι-δοίη-σαν δι-δότντων, -τωσαν δι-δοῦσα 
δι-δοῖ-τον δι-δοίη-τον δί-δο-τον δι-δόν 
δι-δοί-την δι-δοιή-την δι-δό-των (169) 
δι-δοί-μην 
δι-δοῖ-ο δί-δο-σο INFINITIVE 
δι-δοῖ-το δι-δό-σθω δί-δο-σθαι 
δι-δοί-μεθα PARTICIPLE 
δι-δοῖ-σθε δί-δο-σθε δι-δό-μενος 
δι-δοῖ-ντο δι-δόςσθων, -σῦωσαν δι-δο-μένη 


δι-δοῖ-σθον 

δι-δοί-σθην 

δοίη-ν 

δοίη-ς 

δοίη 
δοῖ-μεν 
δοῖ-τε 
δοῖε-ν 


δοίη-μεν 
δοίη-τε 
δοίη-σαν 
δοῖ-τον δοίη-τον 
δοί-την δοιή-την 

δοί-μην 

δοῖ-ο 

δοῖ-το 

δοί-μεθα 

δοῖ-σθε 

δοῖ-ντο 
δοῖ-σθον 
δοί-σθην 


δί-δο-σθον 
δι-δό-σθων 


δό-ς 
δό-τω 


δό-τε 

δό-ντων, -τωσαν 
δό-τον 

δό-των 


δοῦ 
δό-σθω 


δό-σθε 
δό-σθων, -σϑωσαν 
δό-σθον 
δό-σθων 


(169) 


δι-δό-μενον 


INFINITIVE 
δοῦ-ναι 
PARTICIPLE 
δούς 
δοῦσα 

δόν 


INFINITIVE 
δό-σθαι 
PARTICIPLE 
δό-μενος 
δο-μένη 
δό-μενον 


128 


373 


MI - VERBS 


τίθημι (θε:η-) put 


INDICATIVE 
SUBJUNCTIVE 
PRESENT IMPERFECT 
g | oi. ΤῚΣ σί:θησμι -€-TI-On-v τι-θῶ 
Ξ 2| τί-θη-ς ἐ-τί-θεις τι-θῇ-ς 
Ό ‘ ἢ Pel uf 
4 3} τί-θη-σι ἐ-τί-θει τι-θῇ 
- |PlL 1) tt-Oe-pev ἐ-τί-θε-μεν τι-θῶ-μεν 
ξ 9. τί-θε-τε ἐ-τί-θε-τε τι-θῆ-τε 
1 9. τιτθέςᾶσι ἐ-τί-θε-σαν τι-θῶ-σι 
2 | Du. 9] τί-θε-τον ἐ-τί-θε-τον τι-θῆ-τον 
τὰ 9. τί-θε-τον ἐ-τι-θέ-την τι-θῆ-τον 
a |Si. 1 τί-θε-μαι ἐ-τι-θέ-μην τι-θῶ-μαι 
Ξ 2. τί-θε-σαι ἐ-τί-θε-σο τι-θῇ 
Ξ 9. τί-θε-ται ἐ-τί-θε-το τι-θῆ-ται 
: ὈΡ]. 1) τιθέμεθα ἐ-τι-θέ-μεθα τι-θώ-μεθα 
Ε 2| τί-θε-σθε ἐ-τί-θε-σθε τι-θῆ-σθε 
3| τί-θεςννται ἐ-τί-θε-ντο τι-θῶ-νται 
3 |Du. 9. τί-θε-σθον ἐ-τί-θε-σθον τι-θῆ-σθον 
εἰ 8. τί-θε-σθον ἐ-τι-θέτσθην τι-θῆ-σθον 
Ae (ἔ-θη-καὶ) 
2 2 (ἔ-θη-κα-ς) 
3 3 (ἔ-θη-κε) 
eae ἔ-θε-μεν 
Sa 2 ἔ-θε-τε 
2 3 ἔ-θε-σαν 
Ξ Du. 2 ἔ-θε-τον 
3 ἐ-θέ-την 
mbt! ἐ-θέςμην 
τὶ 2 é-Bov 
Ξ 8 ἔ-θε-το 
ΚΕΝ ἢ ama | ἐ-θέςιμεθα 
δ 2 ἔ-θε-σθε 
Ὁ 3 ἔ-θε-ντο 
Sts τ ἔ-θε-σθον 
é-0é-cOnv 


ΜΙ Ἕ- VERBS 


τίϑημι (θε:η-) put 


OPTATIVE 


τι-θείη-ν 

τι-θείη-ς 

τι-θείη 
τι-θεῖ-μεν τι-θείη-μεν 
τι-θεῖ-τε τι-θείη-τε 
τι-θεῖε-ν τι-θείη-σαν 
τι-θεῖ-τον τι-θείη-τον 
τι-θεί-τὴην τι-θειή-την 
τι-θεί-μην τι-θοί-μην 
τι-θεῖ-ο τι-θοῖ-ο 
τι-θεῖ-το τι-θοῖ-το 
τι-θεί-μεθα τι-θοί-μεθα 
τι-θεῖ-σθε τι-θοῖ-σθε 
τι-θεῖ-ντο τι-θοῖ-ντο 


τι-θοῖ-σθον 
τι-θοί-σθην 


τι-θεῖ-σθον 

τι-θεί-σθην 
θείη-ν 
θείη-ς 
θείη 

θεῖ-μεν 

θεῖ-τε 

θεῖε-ν 

θεῖ-τον 

θεί-την 


θείη-μεν 
θείη-τε 
θείη-σαν 
θείη-τον 
θειή-την 
θεί-μην 
θεῖ-ο 
θεῖ-το (-θοῖτο) 
θεί-μεθα (-θοίμεθα) 
θεῖ-σθε 
θεῖ-ντο (-θοῖντο) 
θεῖ-σθον 
θεί-σθην 


9 


ae ----- 


IMPERATIVE 


τί-θει 
τι-θέ-τω 


τί-θε-τε 
τι-θέ-ντων 
τί-θε-τον 
τι-θέ-των 


, 
τί-θε-σο 
| στι-θέ-σθω 


τί-θε-σθε 
τι-θέ-σθων 
τί-θε-σθον 
τι-θέ-σθων 


θέ-ς 
θέ-τω 


θέ-τε 
θέ-ντων 
θέ-τον 
θέ-των 


θοῦ 
θέ-σθω 


θέ-σθε 

θέ-σθων 
θέ-σθον 
θέ-σθων 


τας -----τ-τ----.--------- -- 


INFINITIVE, 
PARTICIPLE 


INFINITIVE 
τι-θέ-ναι 
PARTICIPLE 
τι-θείς 
τι-θεῖσα 
τι-θέν 

(165) 


INFINITIVE 
τί-θε-σθαι 
PARTICIPLE 
τι-θέ-μενος 
τι-θε-μένη 
τι-θέ-μενον 


INFINITIVE 
θεῖ-ναι 
PARTICIPLE 
θείς 
θεῖσα 
θέν 

(165) 


INFINITIVE 
θέ-σθαι 
PARTICIPLE 
θέ-μενος 
θε-μένη 
θέ-μενον 


ay 


SUBJUNCTIVE 


3) S223) ἃ 
ss) =) 
ee ΨῈ 
Om 
3 


i 
4 
mn 


er qr — or το er er σιν» er er 
© > pets © >> > sd 
+ 
° 
= 


a 


AST Ge oe er er or 


Some 8 
at 
~ 


5.3» 
Q 
@D 
ma 


130 MI- VERBS 
374 
INDICATIVE 
PRESENT IMPERFECT 
eu ie) eee ἵ-η-μι ἵ-ει-ν 
5 2 ἵ-η-ς, t-els ἕτει-ς 
a 3 ἵτη-σι, ἱ-εῖ L-€L 
ΓΟ ΠΕΊΣΕΙ ἵ-ε-μεν ἵ-ε-μεν 
ἢ 2 {-€-Te l-€-Te 
᾿ 3 ι-ᾶσι ἵ-ετσαν 
εἶν {1} }...Ὁ ἵ-ε-τον ἵ-ε-τον 
τ' 3 U-€-TOV l-€-THV 
τῶν Berd) ἵ-ε-μαι ἱ-έμην 
Ξ 2 ἵ-ε-σαι ἵ-ε-σο 
Ξ 3 ἵ-ε-ται L-€-TO 
OS Sol SA wea ἢ ἰ-έςμεθα ἱ-έ-μεθα 
‘Sal 
Ε 2 ἵ-ε-σθε ἵ-ε-σθε 
᾿ 8 L-€-VTaL ἵ-ε-ντο 
=i ED rg Ὁ ἵ-ε-σθον ἵ-ε-σθον 
m4 3 ἵ-ε-σθον ἱ-έ-σθην 
ISA (ἧ-κα) 
Ὁ 
Ξ 2 (-Ka-s) 
Ξ Ὁ 
g 3 (ἢ-κε) 
ΛΝ 
Plant εἷ-μεν 
ὦ 2 €L-TE 
NM 
3 €l-cav 
mS 
g Du. 2 εἷ-τον 
3 εἵ-την 
rag) Ute) Paste εἵ-μην 
“Ὁ 
5 2 εἷ-σο 
(=) fe 
= 3 εἷ-το 
<P ed ee | εἵ-μεθα 
Ει Ὁ 
wa 9 εἷ-σθε 
(op) € - 
: 3 €l-VTO 
ae 
Ξ Du. 2 εἷ-σθον 
3 εἵ-σθην 


393? 
Q 
- 
° 
= 


ἕημι (ξ:η-) send 


-εἰη-ν 
-εἰη-ς 
-εἰη 
-εἶ-μεν, 
-€l-TE, 
-εἴε-ν, 
-€l-Tov, 
-el-THV, 
-εἰ-μην 
-€l-0 
-€l-To 
-εἰ-μεθα 


her er er er er 


Cr eke 


cr or 


eee en 


τ 
m 
- 
1 
Q 
Dm 
m 


ἰ-εἶ-ντο 
ἱ-εἰ-σθον 


ἰ-είἰ-σθην 


Δ 
εἷ-σθον 
εἵ-σθην 


OPTATIVE 


-εἰη-μεν 
-εἰη-τε 
-είη-σαν 
-εἰη-τον 
-ειή-την 


eb eh er er 


er 


εἵη-μεν 
εἵη-τε 

εἵη-σαν 
εἵη-τον 
εἱή-την 


MI-VERBS 


IMPERATIVE 


151 


INFINITIVE, 
PARTICIPLE 


L-€L INFINITIVE 
t-€-Tw t-€-vat 
PARTICIPLE 
ἵ-ε-τε ἱ-εἰς 
ἱ-έ-ντων ἱ-εἶῖσα 
ἵ-ε-τον ἱ-έν 
ἱ-έ-των (165) 
ἵ-ε-σο INFINITIVE 
t-é-c Ow ἵ-ε-σθαι 
PARTICIPLE 
ἵ-ε-σθε ἱ-έ-μενος 
ἱ-έσσθων ἱ-ε-μένη 
ἵ-ε-σθον ἱ-έ-μενον 
ἱ-έ-σθων 
ἕ-ς INFINITIVE 
ἕ-τω εἷ-ναι 
PARTICIPLE 
ἕ-τε els 
ἕ-ντων εἶσα 
ἕ-τον ἕν 
ἕ-των (165) 
οὗ INFINITIVE 
ἕ-σθω ἕ-σθαι 
PARTICIPLE 
ἕ-σθε ἕ-μενος 
ἕ-σθων ἑ-μένη 
ἕ ἕ-μενον 


375 


376 


377 


378 


379 


132 MI- VERBS 


The principal parts of the above verbs are 
δίδωμι, δώσω, ἔδωκα, δέδωκα, δέδομαι, ἐδόθην, 
τίθημι, θήσω, ἔθηκα, τέθηκα, τέθεμαι, ἐτέθην (47 ¢), 
inp, Now, ἧκα, -eika (for €é-e-Ka), -εἶμαι, -εἵἴθην. 
a. Many forms of ἴημι are found only in compo- 
sition. The reduplication syllable of ἕημι is irregu- 
lar in being generally long. (Cp. πέπτω.) 


In the present system 

(1) ἑέᾶσι is always contracted to ἱᾶσι. 

(2) Forms of the w-conjugation, like those of contract 
verbs in -έω and -dw (314, 315), are used 

Often in the present indicatives τιθεῖς, ribet, ἱεῖς, Cel, 

Generally in the imperfects ἐτίθεις, ἐτίθει, 

Always in the imperfects ἐδίδουν, ἐδίδους, ἐδίδου, and tev, 
tes, vet, and the imperatives δίδου, τίθει, ἵει. 


Occasional forms like τιθοῖτο, συνθοῖτο, ἐπιθοίμεθα, προοῖτο, mpo- 
οἶντο, or (with changed accent) τίθηται, πρόσθηται, πρόηται, ἐπί- 
θωνται, τίθοιτο, σύνθοιτο, πρόοιντο, ἀμφίοιτε, ἀμφίοιεν, are ἀπ to 
the same leaning toward the w-conjugation. 


In the root-aorist the indicative active lacks the singular ; in- 
stead are used forms of a xa-aorist—like the oa-aorist, but 
with « for σ. 

This xa-formation sometimes occurs in the plural and dual, 
and occasionally in the middle: ἔθηκαν, ἐδώκαμεν, προήκαντο. 


In the root-aorist, further, 

(1) The stem remains short (do-, θε-, ξ-) throughout, except 
in the infinitives dot-va1, θεῖςναι, εἶναι. (Perhaps the ending 
here was -evac instead of -va.) é takes the syllabic augment 
(267) and contracts with it to εἰ-. 

(2) The imperatives δός, θές, és have -s for -θὲ. (In like 
manner oxés, aor. impy. act, 2d sing. of ἔχω.) 


MI-VERBS 133 


(3) The ending -co after a short vowel generally drops o 
and contracts. 

(4) Compounds of δός, θές, es accent the penult: ἀπόδος. 

Compounded with a monosyllabic preposition δοῦ, θοῦ, οὗ 
retain the circumflex; but they throw the accent back on a 
dissyllable: ἐνδοῦ, ἀφοῦ, κατάθου. 

The infinitives δόσθαι, θέσθαι, ἕσθαι in composition retain 
the accent: προσθέσθαι, προέσθαι. 


380 The various ways of forming the tenses of verbs have now 
been shown, and are here grouped together. 
1. Present System : 
A. Q-Conjugation— 
Formative-vowel class, suffix -o:e- (257), 
Tau class, suffix -ro:e- (258), 
Tota class, suffix -vo:e- (259), 
Inceptive class, suffix -cKo:e-, -urxo:e- (260), 
Nasal class, suffix -vo:e-, -avo:e- (with or without 
inserted nasal), -vvo:e-, -veo:e- (261) ; 
B. Μι- Conjugation— 
Nasal class, -vv:v-, -vvv:i- (856), 
Root class, no suffix (357). 
2. Future System : 
Common or sigmatic future, suffix -co:e- (278), 
Liquid future, suffix -co:e- (824; cp. 346), 
“Doric future,” suffix -ceo:e- (326). 
3. Aorist System : 
Sa-aorist, suffix -ca:e- (280), 
Liquid aorist, suffix -a:- with vowel-lengthening 
(327), 
Thematic or formative-vowel aorist, suffix -οἱε- (347), 
Root-aorist, no suffix (366). 
4. Perfect Active System : 
Ka-perfect, suffix -xa:e- with reduplication (288), 
A-perfect, suffix -a:e- with reduplication (382), 
Root perfect, no suffix, with reduplication (370). 


134 MI- VERBS 


5. Perfect Middle System : 
No suffix, with reduplication (299). 
6. Passive System : 
@y-passive, suffix -Ge:n- (802), 
H-passive, suffix -e:y- (334). 


IV. IRREGULAR AND DeErectivE Μι- VERBS 


381 A few verbs are quite common and more or less 
irregular in the present system, but in other systems 
are less common or never found. Some have a future 
system which is nearly or quite regular (882-389). 


382 φημι (pa:n-) say 


Inp. PREs. ImprF. Opt. 


ef eee .., ὺΌὺ.υϑῸΌ.ι..ὅ.. 11-.---ϑ0Ὁ0ὕ0ὕ0ὕ-Ὁ0-Ὁτὔ ὺὔἰὐὔὐ΄ὐ΄΄΄ὦὃἃἝ͵ἝἷἝἷἝἝἰἷἝἾἷἝ . 


φη-μι ἔτφη-ν φαίη-ν 


φή-- ἔφη-σθα | φῇς φαίη-: 
φη-σι ἔτφη φῇ φαίη 
φα-μεν ἔςφα-μεν φῶ-μεν φαῖ-μεν 
φα-τε ἔ-φα-τε φῆ-τε φαίη-τε 
φᾶσι ἔ-ςφα-σαν φῶσι φαῖε-ν 
φα-τον | €-dba-Tov φῆ-τον | φαῖ-τον 
φα-τον | ἐ-φά-την φῆ-τον | φαί-την 


Inf. φά-ναι Fut. φή-σω 
Pte. (dds) φάσκων Aor. €-y-00 


a. The present indic., except φῇς, is enclitic (19 ἃ). 
b. The impf. and φάναι have also the aorist meaning. 
Ὁ. In the opt. φαίημεν and φαίησαν are also found. 


ἃ. Poets use das, etc., but only φάσκων, etc., occur in 
prose. Except in the participle, the forms of φάσκω imply 
repetition : keep saying, assert. 


383 


384 


MI- VERBS 135 


€. οὔ φημι Means nego: deny, refuse, say no. 
f. Poets have a few middle forms, with no translatable 
difference of meaning. 


With φημι belong the three forms ἦμι (enclitic), ἦν, ἢ (Lat. 
aio), equivalent to φημι, ἔφην, ἔφης The formulas ἦν δ᾽ ἐγώ 
said I, ἢ δ᾽ ὅς said he, are much used in reporting conver- 
sations. 


εἰμι (€o-) sum, am, ete. 


Inp. PREs. ImMPr SUBJV Orr Impy 
εἰμι ἦν, ἢ |ὦ εἴη-ν 

εἶ ἦσθα ἢ-ς εἴη-ς ἴσ-θι 
ἐσ-τι ἣν ῇ εἴη ἔσ-τω 
ἐσ-μεν | ἦμεν ὦ-μεν | εἴη-μεν, εἶ-μεν 

ἐσ-τε ἣτε ἢ-τε εἴη-τε ἔσ-τε 
εἰσι ἦσαν ὦ-σι εἴη-σαν, εἶε-ν ἔσ-των 
ἐσττον | ἦσ-τον | ἦ-τον | εἴη-τον, εἶ-τον | ἔσ-τον 
ἐσ-τον | ἤσ-την  ἢ-τον | εἰή-την, εἴ-την | ἔσ-των 
Inf. εἶναι Fut. ἔσομαι (3d sing. ἔσται), 
Part. ὦν, οὖσα, ὄν ἐσοίμην, ἔσεσθαι, ἐσόμενος 


ἃ. In the subjy., opt., and ptc. σ is dropt (55 a) and 
contraction follows: ὦ for ἐ(σ)ω, εἴην for ἐσ-ιην, ὧν for ἐ(σ)ων. 
εἶναι is for ἐσ-ναι. 

b. The pres. ind., except εἶ, is enclitic as copula (19 ἃ), 
but accented when it means ezist. 

The third sing. is written ἔστι (1) at the beginning of its 
clause, (2) in the meaning ezists, (3) in the meaning τέ 15 pos- 
sible or allowed, (4) after οὐκ, μή, εἰ, ws, καί. 

ce. In the impf. the form ἦστε also occurs. 

ἃ. The ptc. keeps its accent in composition: παρών, πα- 
povoa, Also the fut. ἔσται : παρέσται. 


136 MI- VERBS 
385 εἶμι (ἰ-, εἰ-) go, Lat. ire (ep. ter) 


ΙΝ. PREs. Impr. Opt. Impv. 


« 


= 
E 


ἴσοι-μι 
ἴ-οι-ς ἴ-θι 


” 


ee 
-) “9 


-OL ἴ-τω 
ἴ-οι-μεν 
ἴ-οι-τε ἴ-τε 
-OLE-V ἰ-ό-ντων 


ἵ-οι-τον ἵ-τον 
ἰ-οί-την ἴ-των 


Φ 
~ 


” 


Inf. t-é-vat Pte. ἰ-ών, t-otoa, i-dv 


a. In the impf. are found also yeoay and (in later writers) 
NEV, ELS, ἤἥειμεν; ηειτε. 

b. The pres. ind. has a future meaning : am going, shall go. 
The infin. and opt. have now present and now future mean- 
ing. The impf. and ptc. have also the force of an aorist. 


386 οἶδα (ἰδ-, ot8-) know 
Inv. PREs. Impr. SUBJV. Impv. 

οἶδ-α ἤδ-η εἰδ-ὦ 
οἷ-σθα ἤδ-η-σθα εἰδ-ῖς ἴσ-θι 
οἶδ-ε ἤδ-ει ete. io-Tw 
ἴσ-μεν ἧσ-μεν 
ἴσ-τε ἧσ-τε Opt, ἴσ-τε 
ἴσᾶσι ἤδ-ε-σαν εἰδ-είη-ν ἴσ-των 
ἴσ-τον ἧσ-τον εἰδ-είη-ς ἴσ-τον 
ἴσ-τον ἤσ-την ete. to-Twv 


Inf. ei8-évar | Pte. εἰδώς (172) | Fut. εἴσομαι 


987 


ΜΙ- VERBS Lay 


a. In the impf. are found also ἥδεμεν, ἤδετε, ἦσαν, and (in 
later writers) dev, noes, ἤδειμεν, dere, ἤδεισαν. 


Ὁ. The root of οἶδα (id-) is the same as that of εἶδον 7 saw 
and Lat. video; but the above forms never mean see. 


ce. The future εἴσομαι often means shall learn. 


ἃ. The ptc. εἰδώς has the form of a perfect, though present 
in meaning. | 

Also οἶδα, οἶσθα, οἶδε are somewhat like an a-perfect, but are 
always present in meaning; ἴσμεν, etc., the plural and dual, 
are present in form as well. The imperfect is also in part 
like a pluperfect in inflection; but compare the imperfect of 
εἶμι go (385). 


κεῖμαι (κει-) Zve, am laid 


ΙΝ. PRESENT IMPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE 


κεῖ-μαι ἐ-κεί-μην κέ-ω-μαι 
κεῖ-σαι ἔ-κει-σο ete. 
κεῖ-ται ἔ-κει-το OPTATIVE 
κεί-μεθα ἐ-κεί-μεθα κε-οί-μην 
κεῖ-σθε ἔ-κει-σθε ete. 
κεῖ-νται ἔ-κει-ντο IMPERATIVE 
κεῖ-σθον ἔ-κει-σθον κεῖ-σο 
κεῖ-σθον ἐ-κεί-σθην κεί-σθω, ete. 


Inf. κεῖ-σθαι Pte. κεί-μενος Fut. κείσομαι 


a. The infinitive κεῖσθαι keeps its accent in composition : 


κατακεῖσθαι. 


b. Of the subjv. and opt. only κέηται, κέησθε, κέωνται, κέοιτο, 
κέοιντο are found. 


6. κεῖμαι is often used as a perfect passive for τίθημι put: 
νόμους τίθησι he lays down laws; νόμοι κεῖνται laws are estab- 
lished. So in compounds also. 


138 MI- VERBS 


388 ἣμαι (qo-) sid 


Subjv. wanting 
Opt. wanting 


Impy. 
1-00 
ἥ-σθω 
etc. 
Inf. ἧ-σθαι 


Pte. ἥτ-μενος 


a. The stem loses o except before -ras and -ro. 


389 For ua Attic prose always uses the compound — 
κάθημαι (καθη-) sit. 


Inp. PREs. IMPERFECT Impvy. 


κάθη-μαι ἐ-καθή-μην or καθή-μην κάθη-σο 
κάθη-σαι ἐ-κάθη-σο or καθῆ-σο καθή-σθω 


κάθη-ται ἐ-κάθη-το or καθῆσ-το ete. 
ete. etc. ete. 


Inf. καθῆ-σθαι Pte. καθή-μενος 


a. The subjv. and opt. are rare (καθώμεθα, καθήμην, or 
καθοίμην) ; their place is filled by καθίζομαι (see Verb-list). 


390 The noun χρή need, by the usual omission of ἐστι; 
appears like an impersonal verb in the pres. ind. 3d 
sing., there is need, one ought, Lat. oportet. By erasis 
with ἦν, ἢ, εἴη, εἶναι, ἔσται are made ypyv and (with 
an extra augment) ἐχρῆν, χρῇ; Χρείη, χρῆναι, χρῆσται. 


MI-VERBS 199 


391 Two or more defective verbs may supplement one another 


392 


393 


and so make up what serves as one complete verb. This has 
happened with some of the commonest verbs, as in English 
am, 18, are, was, be, or yo, went. So in Greek for the aorist 
and perfect of εἰμι are used ἐγενόμην and γέγονα from γίγνο- 
μαι become; the roots dpa:a-, ὁπ-, and id-, all meaning see, to- 
gether make up ὁράω, ὄψομαι, εἶδον, édpaxa, ὄπωπα, ἑώρᾶμαι, 
ὦμμαι, ὥφθην. See in the Verb-list also αἱρέω, ἔρχομαι, ἐσθίω, 


ζά Fad , Δ ὦ 3 , 
dw, τρέχω, φέρω, λέγω, ὠνέομαι. 


MIDDLE AND PAssIvE Forms witH PECULIAR MEANING 


In many verbs otherwise active the future active is 
wanting and the future middle has the active mean- 
ing. Especially common are 


ἀκούω, ἀκούσομαι hear, μανθάνω, μαθήσομαι learn, 
ἁμαρτάνω, ἁμαρτήσομαι fart, οἶδα, εἴσομαι know, 
ἀπο-θνήσκω, ἀποθανοῦμαι die, ὄμνυμι, ὀμοῦμαι SWeAr, 
βαδίζω, βαδιοῦμαι walk, ὁράω, ὄψομαι 866, 
γιγνώσκω, γνώσομαι recognize, πάσχω, πείσομαι suff er, 
διώκω, διώξομαι pursue, πίπτω, πεσοῦμαι fall, 

εἰμι, ἔσομαι am, be, etc., πλέω, πλεύσομαι sail, 
ἐπαινέω, ἐπαινέσομαι Praise, τρέχω, δραμοῦμαι TUN, 
κάμνω, καμοῦμαι am weary, τυγχάνω, τεύξομαι happen, 


λαγχάνω, λήξομαι get by lot or fate, φεύγω, φεύξομαι flee. 
λαμβάνω, λήψομαι take, 


The future middle of some verbs has the passive 
meaning ; among the more common are 

ἀδικήσομαι shall be wronged, ὠφελήσομαι shall be benefited, 
αὐξήσομαι shall be increased, ταράξομαι shall be disturbed, 


οἰκήσομαι shall be administered, θρέψομαι shall be nurtured, 
πολιορκήσομαι shall be besieged, φυλάξομαι shall be guarded. 


a. Some others have in the passive sense both middle and 
passive forms: 


394 


395 


396 


140 MI-VERBS 


ζημιώσομαι and ζημιωθήσομαι shall be damaged, 
ἀπο-στερήσομαι and -στερηθήσομαι shall be deprived, 
τιμήσομαι and τιμηθήσομαι shall be honored. 


Of deponent verbs (middle or passive in form but 
active in meaning; cp. 501) some have in the aorist 
tense middle forms (middle deponents), others passive 
forms (passive deponents). Among middle deponents 
many have also the passive aorist with passive mean- 
Ing, aS αἰτιάομαι accuse, ἡἠτιᾶσάμην accused, ἡτιάθην 


>) 
avas accused. So also 


δέχομαι accept, λυμαίνομαι jure, 
δωρέομαι present, μέμφομαι blame, 
ἐργάζομαι work, μιμέομαι imitate, 
ἀποκρίνομαι answer, μεταπέμπομαι send for, 
λογίζομαι reckon, ἐντέλλομαι ENJOIN UPON. 


Most passive deponents have in the future the middle 
forms: 


βούλομαι wish, βουλήσομαι, ἐβουλήθην, 
δέομαι want, ask, δεήσομαι, ἐδεήθην, 
δύναμαι Can, δυνήσομαι, ἐδυνήθην, 
οἴομαι think, οἰήσομαι, φήθην. 


ἃ. But some passive deponents have in the future both 
middle and passive forms: 
αἰδέομαι respect, αἰδέσομαι, and αἰδεσθήσομαι, 
διαλέγομαι Converse, διαλέξομαι, and διαλεχθήσομαι. 
b. The following have only passive forms in both aorist 
and future : 
ἔραμαι love, ἠράσθην, ἐρασθήσομαι, 
ἥδομαι am pleased, ἥσθην, ἡσθήσομαι, 
ἡττάομαι am worsted, ἡττήθην, ἡττηθήσομαι. 


The perfect of some deponents has both active and passive 
meanings : : 


397 


998 


999 


WORD-FORMATION 141 


εἴργασται he has worked or it has been worked, 
ἐώνημαι [have bought or have been bought. 


HK. WORD-FORMATION 


Words are formed from other words in two ways: 
(1) By adding a suffix to an existing stam, or by 
slightly changing an ending so as to make a new one 
(derwation ; the new word is derived from the old). 
(2) By putting two words or stems together into 
one (composition ; the new word is a compound of 
the two). 


a. Declension and conjugation are special forms of deriva- 
tion, so clearly marked in character that they properly receive 
separate names. The formation of adverbs has been treated 
in connection with declension (228-287), but might have been 
treated here. So with the numeral adjectives, adverbs, and 
nouns described in 191, 192. 


Many Greek stems took their existing form so early that they 
can not now be analyzed into their parts. For us these are 
root words, of the original stock of the language. Often 
their likeness to other Greek words, or to words in kindred 
languages, throws light on their earlier history ; but the study 
of such relations belongs to comparative philology. In the 
following sections are treated only the most common types of 
word-formation ; but these alone are enough to show how the 
bulk of the copious Greek vocabulary has been made, and to 
assist greatly in learning that vocabulary. 


I, DERIVATION 


Words formed directly from a verb-stem are called 


_verbals ; those formed from a noun or adjective stem 


are called denominatives. 


400 


401 


402 


142 WORD-FORMATION 


a. The shifting of vowels described in 25 and 26 is frequent 
in derivation, as in declension and conjugation. 

Ὁ, As in conjugation (cp. 322 and a) a o, of uncertain 
origin, is sometimes added to a verb-stem before a suffix. So 
also θΘ in ora-6-uos station from ora- stand, and in ῥυ-θ-μός 
rhythm from ῥέω (pv-) flow. 

c, A final stem-vowel and the vowel of a suffix often con- 
tract. 

d. A final vowel of a stem is sometimes dropt before a 
vowel. 

e. The consonant changes described in 45-55 are made, as 
in conjugation (341, 345). 

f, A final consonant is sometimes dropt before the ending. 


VERBALS 


A few verbals, nouns and adjectives, are made from verb- 
stems without a suffix, by simply adding the case-endings of 
the consonant declension : 


ἡ Ow (d7-) voice, from εἰπεῖν (ἐπ-) speak, 

ἡ πτύξ (πτυχ-) fold, πτύσσω (πτυχ-) fold, 
ὁ κλώψ (κλωπ-) thief, κλέπτω (κλεπ-) steal, 
ἡ φλόξ (φλογ-) flame, φλέγω (φλεγ-) burn, 
ἅρπαξ (dpray-) plundering, ἁρπάζω (ἁρπαγ-) seize, 


ἡ Στύξ (orvy-) Styx, root seen in στυγ-έω hate. 


Verbal Nouns 


Nouns are made from verb-stems by adding a variety 
of suffixes. ‘The meaning of the suffix is often vague, 
made clear only by the nature of the verb, by the 
gender of the noun, or by usage. But many verbal 
nouns fall into fairly distinct classes, denoting the 
agent or doer, the action, the result of the action, or 


VERBALS 143 


the imstrument. Again, many abstract nouns and 


nouns of action have become concrete, so that the 
original force is changed. 


a. The accent sometimes varies on different nouns with 
the same suffix. When the accent regularly falls on the suf- 
fix, that will be indicated; otherwise the accent must be 
learned from the examples and in reading. 


The suffix -o, nom. mas. and fem. -os, neut. -ov, is one of the 
most common, of very various meaning; an ε in the verb- 
stem regularly changes to o (25): 


λόγ-ος speech, from λέγω (Aey-) speak, 

στόλ-ος expedition, στέλλω (στελ-) equip, send, 
δρόμεος running, δραμεῖν (dpap-) run, 

ζυγ-όν yoke, ζεύγνῦμι (ζυγ-. ζευγ-) Join, 
νόμεος custom, law, νέμω (νεμ-) distribute, 
φόρ-ος tribute, φέρω (φερ-) bring, bear, 
ἀρχ-ός ruler, ἄρχω (ἀρχ-) rule, 

tpod-os (ὃ, ἡ) nurse, τρέφω (τρεφ-) nourish. 


a. The suffix is accented when it denotes the agent. 

b. Many nouns whose origin is obscure, or can be traced 
only by comparing other languages, plainly have this ending : 
οἶκ-ος house, x@p-os place. 


The suffix -d, nom. -a or -y, forms many nouns. Most of 
them denote the action, but many have taken on a concrete 
meaning, so that the force of the suffix is very various: 


dpx-n beginning, rule, dpxw (dpx-) am first, 
Bovr-y will, plan, βούλομαι (Bova-) wish, 
χαρ-ἅ Joy, χαίρω (xap-) 7e/00¢e, 
pax-n battle, μάχομαι (pax-) fight, 
ἀγορά market-place, ἀγείρω (ἀγερ-) gather, 


σπουδ-ή haste, eagerness, σπεύδω (σπευδ-) hasten. 


a. Most of these accent the suffix, but some common words 
accent the penult. 


405 


406 


144 


WORD-FORMATION 


b. This ending also appears in many nouns whose origin is 
uncertain or traceable only by comparing other languages ; 
dix-n Judgment (in law), right, χώρ-ἃ land. 


The agent or doer is denoted by the suffixes 

Mas. -ryp, nom. -rnp, Fem. -τειρᾶ, nom. -τειρᾶ, 
-TOP, -TWP, -τριᾶ, -«τριᾶ, 
«τᾶ, “TNS, -τριδ, -τιδ, «τρις, -τις. 
“EU, -€US (cp. 430 a). 


σω-τήρ savior, fem. od-reipa, 


συλ-λήπ-τωρ helper, 


ῥή-τωρ speaker, 
ἵσ-τωρ (for Fid-rwp) one 
who knows, 
ποιη-τής Maker, poet, 
αὐλη-τής flute-player, 
προ-φή-της prophet, 
γραφ-εύς writer, 


The action is denoted by the 


συλ-λήπ-τρια, 


ποιή-τρια, ᾿ 
αὐλη-τρίς, 
προ-φῆ-ττις, 


σῴζω (σω-) save, 

συλλαμβάνω (συν-ληβ-)ὺ take 
with, 

ei-py-Ka (pe:n-) have spoken, 

οἶδα (ἰδ-, oid-) know, 


ποιέω (ποιε:η-) make, 
αὐλέω (αὐλε:η-) play the flute, 
πρό-φημι (προ-φα;:η-) speak for, 
γράφω (ypad-) write. 


following suffixes, but in many 


cases the meaning has become concrete : 


“Tl, nom. -τις, 


“Cl, «σις, 
-σιᾶ, -σία, 
πίσ-τις faith, 

κρίσις decision, 

πρᾶξις action, 

δοκιμα-σία scrutiny, 
πεν-ία poverty, 

παιδ-ιᾶ play, 

ὀδυρ-μός wailing, 

δε-σ-μός (400 b) bond, 
στα-θ-μός (400 b) station, 
τι-μή honor, 


γνώ-μη opinion, 


-4, nom. -ia, 
“#0, -μός, 
“pea, ᾿ “PI 
πείθω (πιθ-) win over, mid. trust, 
: ὶ 
κρίνω (κρι-) decide, ) 


πράσσω (πρᾶγ-) do, 

δοκιμάζω (δοκιμαδ-) scrutinize, 
πένομαι (πεν-) am poor, 

παίζω (παιδ-) play, 

ὀδύρομαι (ὀδυρ-) wail, 

δέω (de-) bind, 

ἵστημι (στα-) set, 

τίω (τι-) honor, 

γιγνώσκω (yvorw-) opine. 


VERBALS 145 
a. From verb-stems in -ev (417 a) are formed many nouns 

in -a. By loss of v (27) -evra becomes -είᾶα. 
δουλεία slavery, δουλεύω (δουλευ-) am a slave, 


βασιλεία reign, kingdom, βασιλεύω (βασιλευ-) am king. 


407 The resulé of an action is denoted by the following suffixes ; 
but many nouns formed with them have other meanings : 


-ματ, nom. -μα (neut.), -eo, nom. -os (neut.). 
mpay-pa deed, thing, πράσσω (mpay-) do, 
ποίη-μα thing made, poem, ποιέω (ποιε:η-) make, 

ὄμ-μα (poetic) eye, ὄψομαι (d7-) shall see, 

γέν-ος race, γίγνομαι (yev-) am born, 
ψεῦδ-ος falsehood, ψεύδομαι (Wevd-) speak falsely, 
σθέν-ος strength, σθένω (σθεν-) am strong. 


408 The means or instrument—and also other relations—are de- 
noted by -rpo or -θρο, nom. -rpov or -θρον. 


σκῆπ-τρον staff, σκήπτω (σκηπ-) prop, 
λου-τρόν bath, λούω (λου-) bathe, 

κλεῖ-θρον fastening, κλείω (κλει-) close, 

ἄρ-θρον joint, ᾿ς ἀραρίσκω (ἀρ-) fit, 

Bé-Opov basis, _ βαίνω (Ba-) step, stand firm. 


a. A related suffix is -rpa: 


παλαίσ-τρᾶ wrestling-place, παλαίω (παλαι-) wrestle, 
ὀρχή-σ-τρα dancing-place, ὀρχέομαι (ὀρχε:η-) dance, 
χύ-τρα (also χύ-τρος) pot, χέω (χυ-) pour. 


~ . 
409 The various infinitives are a special class of verbal nouns (see 


562). 
Verbal Adjectives 


410 With the suffix -o (cp. 403) are formed some words that may 
be used as adjectives or nouns at will. As adjectives some 
have a feminine in -a (cp. 404), others are of two endings. 

- Not a few such adjectives (or nouns) are used as the second 
part of a compound (446 c), though not found separately : 
10 


411 


412 


140 WORD-FORMATION 


λοιπ-ός (7, -ov) left, remaining, 
dywy-os (reduplicated) leading, 


guide, 
-ποι-ός making (400 d), 
-μάχοος fighting, 
-ny-os leading, 
-pdp-os bearing, 
-nxo-os (27) hearing, 


λείπω (λειπ-) leave, 
ἄγω drive, lead, 


ποιέω (ποιε-) make, 
μάχομαι (pax-) fight, 
ἄγω (ἀγ-) drive, lead, 
φέρω (φερ-) bear, 


ἀκούω (ἀκου-) hear. 


The verbals in -ro-s and -réo-s, made from most verbs, have 


been briefly described (352-354). 


Those in -ro-s have a wide 


range of meaning, usually passive, sometimes active, in some 
cases resembling a perfect active participle : 


δυνα-τός able (act.), possible 


(pass.), 
πλανη-τός wandering, 


τλη-τός enduring or endurable, 
πισ-τός trustworthy, faithful, 
κροτη-τός pounded or rattling, 


ὕπ-οπ-τος suspected ΟΥ̓ 81ι8- 
»ϊοϊοιιδ,, 

ἄ-πρᾶκ-τος (440) wndone or 
having done nothing, 


δύναμαι (dvva-) can, 


πλανάω (πλανα;:η-) wander, 

τλάω (τλα;η-) endure, 

πείθω (πιθ-) win, trust, 

κροτέω (κροτε:η-) pound, 

ὑπ-όψομαι (ὑπ-οπ-}) shall eye 
stealthily, — 

πρᾶσσω (πραγ-) do. 


Many verbal adjectives, active, passive, or indeterminate, are 


formed with the suffixes 
-vo OF -avo, 
-λο -ελο, 
“po -€po, 


otvy-vos hateful, hated, 


oepu-vos (for σεβ-νος) revered, 


solemn, 
δει-νός fearful, 
TEPT-VOS delightf: ul, 


nom. -(a)vds, -7, τόν, 


, 


-(e)Ads, -ἥ, -όν, 
’ὔ 


-(e)pés, -d, -dv. 


root orvy-, στυγέω (orvye-) hate, 


σέβομαι (oeB-) revere, 


δέδοικα (δι;, δει-, δοι-) fear, 
τέρπω (τερπ-) delight, 


1Cp. the two meanings of suspicious in a suspicious man and α sus- 
5 4 


picious circumstance. 


418 


VERBALS 147 


ix-avos sufficient, capable, ἱκνέομαι (ix-) arrive, 

πιθ-ανός Persuasive, πείθω (πιθ-, πειθ-)} win over, 
δει-λός timid (cp. δεινός), δέδοικα (δι-, δει-, δοι-) fear’, 
στυφ-ελός compact, στύφω (στυφ-) draw together, 
ἐχθερός hateful, hating, ἔχθω (ἐχθ-) hate, 

λαμπ-ρός splendid, λάμπω (λαμπ-) shine, 
μελετη-ρός practising, practised, μελετάω (μελετα:η-) practise, 
ἰσχῦ-ρός strong, ἰσχύω (ἰσχῦ-) be strong, 
βλαβ-ερός harmful, βλάπτω (βλαβ-) harm, 
φαν-ερός plain, φαίνω (pav-) show, 


στυγ-ερός hateful, hated (cp. στυγνός). 


a. Some nouns formed with like suffixes are closely related 
to these, and may have been originally adjectives : 


στεφ-ανός wreath, crown, στέφω (στεφ-) put around, 
δρέπ-ανον scythe, δρέπω (dper-) pluck, cull, 
στή-λη column, monument, ἵστημι (ora:y-) set up, 
pi-Aov, φῦ-λή tribe, clan, dio make grow, 
δῶτρον gift, δίδωμι (So:w-) give. 
Other suffixes that form verbal adjectives are 

a. -v, nom. -vs, eva, -v. 
ἡδιύς pleasing, ἥδομαι (ἡδ-) am pleased. 


(In ταχ-ούς swift, Bap-vs heavy, and others, the root does 
not appear in Greek as a verb-stem.) 


Ὁ. -ec, nom. -ys, -ες. 
ψευδ-ής false, ψεύδομαι (Wevd-) Jie. 
(Many adjectives in -ys are compounds; see 446, 447.) 
C. -pov, nom. -μωνς -μον. 
τλή-μων enduring, wretched, τλάω (τλα;:η-) endure, 
μνή-μων mindful, μιμνήσκω (μνη-) remind, 
αἰδή-μων respectful, αἰδέομαι respect, 
ἐπελήσ-μων forgetful, ἐπι-λανθάνομαι (λαθ-, ληθ-) 


forget. 


414 


415 


148 WORD-FORMATION 


Here belong also some nouns in -μων : 
ἡγε-μών leader, ἡγέομαι (ἡγε:η-) lead. 
ἃ. -ἰκο, nom. -ἰκός, -7, -όν, often suggesting 17.- 
clination to or fitness for an action (cp. 425) : 
ἀρχοικός fit to rule, apxw (ἀρχ-) rule, 
γραφ-ικός suited to writing or γράφω (ypad-) write or paint. 
painting, 


6. -τικο, nom, -τικός, -7, -όν, developed from -ἰκο, 
by use with verbals in -zos : 
πρᾶκ-τικός inclined to act, πράσσω (mpay-) do, 
λογισ-τικός Skilled in reckoning, λογίζομαι (λογιδ-) reckon, 
γυμνασ-τικός fond of exercise, γυμνάζω (γυμναδ-) exercise, 
σκεπ-τικός disposed to examine, σκέπτομαι (σκεπ-) look care- 
Sully. 


f. ~l{L0 and -σιμο, nom. -(σ)ιμος, τῇ. τὸν : 
τρόφ-ιμος nourishing, nourished, τρέφω (τρεφ-) rear, 


πλώ-ιμος navigable, πλέω (πλυ-) sail, 
μάχοιμος fit to fight, μάχομαι (pax-) fight, 
χρή-σιμος useful, χράομαι (xpa:n-) 1ι86, 
καύ-σιμος combustible, Kaw (καυ-) burn. 


The various participles are special classes of verbal adjectives. 


DENOMINATIVES 
Denominative Verbs 


Verb-stems are made from nouns 

(1) By merely adding the endings of conjugation, 
the stem being unchanged, except by the usual pro- 
cesses of conjugation ; 

(2) By changing the final stem-vowel ; 

(3) By adding a new element; the final stem- 
vowel may be changed at the same time, All under 


416 


DENOMINATIVE VERBS 149 


this head belong in the present system to the c class 
(259) ; originally the presents of the other types be- 
longed to the same class, although in Attic Greek the 
« no longer appears. 

Thus arose, with some crossing of types, several 
models, on which denominative verbs were made 
pretty freely ; the classes are clearly separated in 
form, much less clearly in meaning. 


a. Stems in -o:w, pres. ind. in -ow, regularly transitive, often 
causative : | 
δουλό-ω (δουλο:ω-) enslave, δοῦλος slave, 
ἀξιότω (ἀξιο:ω-) deem worthy or fit, ἄξιος worthy. 
On the same model, from other stems, with a change of 
vowel : 
ζημιό-ω (ζημιο:ω-) punish, ζημία damage, 
ῥιζό-ω (pilo:w-) cause to root, pila root. 
From consonant stems, with added -o: 
partiyo-w (pactiyo:w-) whip, μάστιξ (μαστιγ-) whip. 
b. Stems in -a:a or -a:n, pres. in -dw: 
Tipd-w (τιμα:η-) honor, τιμή honor, 
vikd-w (vika:y-) am victorious, νίκη victory, 
ἡττά-ομαι (ἡττα:η-) am worsted, ἧττα defeat. 
From stems in -o, with change of vowel : 
ἀριστά-ω (ἀριστα:η-) breakfast, ἄριστον breakfast, 
γοά-ομαι (γοα:η-) watl, γόος wail. 


6. Stems in -e:7, pres. in -ἔω, generally intransitive: 


oiké-w (oike:n-) dwell, οἶκος house, 

φιλέω (φιλε:η-) love, ὲ φίλος friend, 

ἀποδημέω (ἀποδημε:η-) am abroad,  ἀπόδημος away from home, 
Grropé-w (ἀπορε:η-) am at a loss, ἄπορος without resources. 


or poor, 


150 WORD-FORMATION 


From stems in -eo, with loss of o (85 a): 
Kpaté-w (κρατε:η-) am strong, rule, κράτος (κρατεσ-) strength, 
ἀσθενέτω (ἀσθενε:η-) am weak, ill, ἀσθενής, -és weak, 
εὐτυχέω (εὐτυχε:η-) am fortunate, εὐτυχής, -és fortunate. 
From consonant-stems, with added -e: 
cuppove-w (σωφρονε:η-) am discreet, σώφρων of sound mind, 
ἱστορέω (ἱστορε:η-) investigate, ἵστωρ one who knows (405). 


417 a. Stems in -ev, pres. indic. in -εύω: 


βασιλεύ-ω (βασιλευ-) reign, βασιλεύς king, 
ἱππεύ-ω (ἱππευ-) serve in the ἱππεύς horseman. 
cavalry, 

From other vowel-stems, with change of vowel : 
ὑποπτεύ-ω (ὑποπτευ-) suspect, ὕποπτος Suspicious, 
πορεύ-ω (πορευ-) make proceed, πόρος Passage, 
πιστεύ-ω (πιστευ-) trast, πιστός faithful, 
βουλεύ-ω (βουλευ-) plan, βουλή will, plan, 
ixerev-w (ikerev-) entreat, ἱκέτης supplant, 
ἀληθεύω (ἀληθευ-) speak truth, ἀληθής, -ἐς trwe. 

From consonant-stems, with added -ev: 
παιδεύ-ω (παιδευ-) educate, παῖς (παιδ-) child, 
φυγαδεύ-ω (φυγαδευ-) exile, φυγάς (pvyad-) exrle. 

b. A few stems in -v, pres. in -iw: 
daxpv-w (daxpi-) weep, δάκρυ tear, 
yupv-w (γηρῦ-) speak, sing, γῆρυς voice. 


418 Stems in -.d, pres. ind. in -ἰζω (c-class, 259 d) : 
ἐλπίζω (ἐλπιδ-) hope, anticipate, ἐλπίς (ἐλπιδ-) hope, 


ἐρίζω (ἐριδ-) quarrel, ἔρις (ἐριδ-) strife. 
From other stems, with change or addition of the final 
element : 
χαρίζομαι (xapis-) do a favor, χάρις (xapir-) grace, 
ὁρίζω (δριδ-) limit, bound, ὅρος boundary, 


τειχίζω (τειχιδ-)} bwild a wall, τεῖχος (τειχεσ-) wall, 


419 


420 


421 


DENOMINATIVE VERBS 151 


ἀθροίζω (ἀθροιδ-) assemble, ἀθρόος, ἁθρόος in a crowd, 
ἑλληνίζω (EAAnvid-) speak Greek, Ἕλλην Greek, 
χωρίζω (χωριδ-) set apart, χωρίς (adv.) apart. 


For ἐμποδίζω and διαχειρίζω see 448 a. 
a. Similar in the present only is σαλπίζω (cadmyy-) sound 
the trumpet, from σάλπιγξ trumpet; but aor. ἐσάλπιγξα. 


Stems in -ad, pres. in -aéw (class, 259 d), are partly from 
noun-stems in -ar, but mostly from noun-stems in -a and 
adjective-stems in -o, with change of -a or -o: 


θαυμάζω (θαυμαδ-) wonder, θαῦμα (θαυματ-) wonder, 
ὀνομάζω (ὀνομαδ-) name, ὄνομα (ὀνοματ-} name, 
δικάζω (δικαδ-) give judgment, δίκη decision, justice, 
βιάζομαι (βιαδ-) wse force, Bia violence, 

ἀτιμάζω (ἀτιμαδ-) dishonor, ἄτιμος unhonored. 


Also from other stems, with the final element changed 
to -ad: 
dixalw (διχαδ-) divide in two, δίχα (adv.) in two parts, 
στασιάζω (στασιαδ-) form a στάσις (otact-) faction. 
faction, 


Stems in -αν, pres. in -αίνω (v-class, 259 Ὁ). These are partly 
from noun- or adjective-stems in -av, but oftener from others, 
with change of the final element, or with an addition : 


μελαίνω (μελαν-) blacken, μέλας (μελαν-) black, 
ποιμαίνω (ποιμαν-) herd, ποιμήν (ποιμεν-) herdsman, 
εὐφραίνω (εὐφραν-) gladden, εὔφρων (εὐφρον-) glad, 
σημαίνω (σημαν-) signify, σῆμα (onpat-) sign, 
χαλεπαίνω (χαλεπαν-) am angry, χαλεπός (xaXero-) hard, angry, 
κερδαίνω (κερδαν-) gain, κέρδος (κερδεσ-) gain. 


Stems in -vv, pres. in -ivw (class, 259 Ὁ). These are largely 
from adjective-stems in -v, but also from other stems, which 
are changed or extended to conform to the model : 

βαρύνω (βαρυν-) make heavy, βαρύς heavy, 

taxivw (taxvv-) hasten, ταχύς swift, 


422 


423 


424 


152 WORD-FORMATION 


λαμπρύνω (λαμπρυν-) brighten, λαμπρός shining, 
αἰσχὕνω (αἰσχυν-) make ashamed, αἶσχος shame, 
μηκύνω (μηκυν-) lengthen, μῆκος length. 


Similar formations, with presents of the c-class, are seen in 
ἀγγέλλω (ἀγγελ-) report, ἄγγελος messenger, 
τεκμαίρομαι (τεκμαρ-) settle by τέκμαρ Sign, 

signs, infer, 
καθαίρω (καθαρ-) cleanse, purify, καθαρός clean, 


ἐχθαίρω (ἐχθαρ-) hate, ἔχθος hatred, 

μαρτύὕρομαι (μαρτυρ-) call to μάρτυς witness, 
witness, 

ἱμείρω (twep-) long for, ἵμερος longing, 

οἰκτίρω (οἰκτιρ-) pity, οἶκτος pity, 

παίζω (παιδ-) play, παῖς (παιδ-:) child. 


The differences of use between the above verb-formations are 
best seen when two verbs are made from one stem: 


oixew dwell, οἰκίζω settle (a town), 

ἀτιμόω disfranchise, ἀτιμάζω dishonor, 

μαρτυρέω am a witness, testify, μαρτύρομαι call to witness, 

καθαρεύω am pure, καθαίρω cleanse, 

δουλεύω am a slave, δουλόω enslave, 

πολεμέω Make war, πολεμόω make hostile, 

σωφρονέω am discreet, σωφρονίζω make discreet, 
chastise. 


Denominative Adjectives 


The suffix -ιο, fem. -14, nom. -ἰος, (-va,) τιον, is most widely 
used to form adjectives from noun-stems. A final stem-vowel 
contracts with «, or it may be changed or dropt. The mean- 
ing of the suffix is vague, pertaining to the noun, in some way 
which the noun or the context makes clear: 

δίκαιος Just, right, | δίκη (δικᾶ-) Justice, right, 
dpxatos ancient, ἀρχή (dpxa-) beginning, 
ἀγοραῖος of the market, ἀγορὰ market, . 


425 


426 


DENOMINATIVE ADJECTIVES 15 


βασίλειος (27) royal, the king’s, 


Τελαμών-ιος of Telamon, 
σωτήρ-ιος saving, of safety, 
οἰκεῖος domestic, one’s own, 
dyp-tos wild, 

πολέμειος hostile, 

Kopiv6-cos Corinthian, 
Μιλήσ-ιος (46) Milesian, 
aidotos revered, 


Go 


βασιλεύ-ς king, 

Τελαμών Telamon, 

σωτήρ savior, 

οἶκο-ς house, property, 

ἀγρό-ς field, 

πόλεμο-ς WAN, 

Κόρινθος Corinth, 

Μίλητος Miletos, 

αἰδώς (129) respect, reverence. 


a. In some adjectives the suffix appears to be -evo, nom. -εἰος : 


γυναικ-εῖος of women, 


γύνη (γυναικ-) woman. 


The suffix -ἰκο, nom. -ἰκός, -7, -όν, 15. added to noun-stems as 
well as to verb-stems (413 d) ; in some cases the starting-point 


may have been either. 


A final stem-vowel is dropt ; but with 


stems the ending is probably -xo: 


βασιλ-ικός kingly, 

βαρβαρ-ικός barbarian, 
ἑλλην-ικός Creek, 

δαρεικός (for dape-tkos) daric, 
πολεμεικός warlike, 

yewpy-ixos skilled in farming, 


στρατηγ-ικός skilled as a general, 


φυσι-κός natural, physical, 


βασιλεύς king, 
βάρβαρος foreigner, 
"EAAnv Creek, 
Δαρεῖος Dareios, 
πόλεμος WAT, 
γεωργός farmer, 
στρατηγός general, 
φύσις nature. 


Many of these, by omission of τέχνη art, become nouns: 
μουσική MUSIC, γραμματική grammar. 


The suffixes -co, nom. -ots, -7, -otv (87), and -wo, nom. -ἰνος, 
τῇ. τον, form adjectives of material : 


ἀργύρ-εος, ἀργυροῦς of silver, 
AiG-wos of stone, 
ξύλ-ινος wooden, 


ἄργυρος silver, 
λίθος stone, 
ξύλον wood. 


But they also have in other words a more general meaning: 


φοινίκεος, φοινϊκοῦς red, 
ἀληθοινός genuine, 


ἀνθρώπ-ινος, ἀνθρώπειος human, 


Φοῖνιξ Phenician, 
ἀληθής true, 
ἄνθρωπος man. 


427 


428 


429 


154 WORD-FORMATION 


Several in -wos are made from words denoting time: 


ἐαρ-ινός Of spring, ἔαρ spring, 
ὀπωρ-ινός autumnal, ὀπώρα harvest, 
ἡμερ-ινός of daytime, ἡμέρα day. 


The suffix -evr, nom. -εις, -εσσα, -ev, in a few adjectives means 
endowed or supplied with : 


xapi-as graceful, χάρις (xapt-, xapit-) grace, 
φωνή-εις possessing voice or speech, φωνή voice. 

Hence φωνῆεν (γράμμα) a vowel. 
The suffixes -ἰμο, -vo, -po are added to noun-stems as well as to 


verb-stems (cp. 412). In some cases either verb or noun may 
have been the base : 


ἄλκοιμος mighty, ἀλκή Prowess, 

φρόν-ιμος sensible, φρήν (ppev-) mind, 

ὀρει-νός (for dpec-vos) of the ὄρος (ὀρεσ-) mountain, 
mountains, 

ἀλγει-νός (for dAyeo-vos) painful, ἄλγος (ἀλγεσ-) pain, 

λυπη-ρός painful, λύπη pain, λυπέω Grieve, 

pbove-pos grudging, φθόνος envy, φθονέω grudge, 

δροσε-ρός dewy, δρόσος dew, 

movy-pos toilsome, bad, 7 πόνος toil, distress. 


Perhaps in πονηρός and some others -ypo was thought of 
as the suffix : 
poxOnpos wretched, μόχθος (μοχθο-) pain, 
ἀνθηρός flowery, ἄνθος (ἀνθεσ-) flower. 


Denominative Nouns 


Nouns of quality (all feminine) are made from adjectives, and 
occasionally from nouns, by adding to the stem the suffixes 
-τητ, a, -cvva. Abstract nouns often become concrete, being 
applied to special instances of the quality or action : 


a. Suffix -ryr, nom. -rys (cp. Lat. -tdt, -tds) : 


430 


DENOMINATIVE NOUNS Loo 


πιστό-της faithfulness, πιστό-ς faithful, 
(o)pixpo-rns smallness, (σ)μῖκρό-ς small, 
παχύ-της thickness, παχύ-ς thick. 


b. Suffix -ἰᾶ, nom. -/@ or -ἰα, before which a final stem- 
vowel is lost : 


φιλ-ία friendship, diro-s friend, 

dzrouk-ia. colony, ἄποικο-ς away from home, 
evdapov-ia happiness, εὐδαίμων happy, 

εὔνοια good-will, εὔνοο-ς friendly, kind, 
ἀλήθεια (for ἀληθεσ-ια)ὴ truth, ἀληθής (ἀληθεσ-) true, 
ἀσθένεια (for ἀσθενεσ-ια) weakness, ἀσθενής (ἀσθενεσ-) weak, 
ἀθανασ-ίὰ (46) immortality, ἀθάνατο-ς immortal, 
evepyeo-ia (46) denefaction, εὐεργέτης benefactor. 


c. Suffix -συνᾶ, nom. -ovvy, before which a final consonant 
of the stem is lost: 


δικαιο-σύνη JUSTICE, δίκαιο-ς Just, right, 
σωφρο-σύνη self-control, σώφρων (cwdpov-) self- 
controlled. 


Nouns denoting a person who has to do with something are 
made with the suffixes -ev, -ra, -τιδ (cp. 405). 

a. Suffix -ev, nom. -evs, masc., some forming a feminine in 
-ca. A final stem-vowel is lost before the suffix : 


ἱππ-εύς horseman, ἵππο-ς horse, 
ἱερ-εύς priest, ἱέρ-εια priestess, ἱερό-ς sacred, 
γραμματ-εύς clerk, secretary, γράμμα (ypappar-) writing. 


Ὁ. Suffix -τᾶ, nom. -rys, masc., some forming a feminine 
in -τιδ, nom. -rs. A final stem-vowel before the ending is 
often changed in some way : 


πολί-της, fem. πολῖ-τις, citizen, πόλι-ς state, 
στρατιώ-της soldier, στρατιᾶ army, 
νησιώ-της, fem. νησιῶ-τις, islander, νησίο-ν, νῆσο-ς island, 
δημό-της demesman, δῆμο-ς deme, 


οἰκέςτης, fem. οἰκέτις, house-servant, οἶκο-ς house, 
δεσμώ-της, fem. δεσμῶ-τις, prisoner, δεσμός bond. 


156 WORD-FORMATION 


431 Several suffixes form nouns, many of which (but not all) have 
a diminutive meaning, or a caressing or a contemptuous tone ; 
the end of the stem often suffers a change. 

a. Suffix -vo, nom. -cov, neut. : 


παιδ-ίο-ν little child, παῖς (παιδ-) child, 
ἀκόντ-ιο-ν javelin, ἄκων (ἀκοντ-}) spear, 
βιβλ-ίο-ν book, βίβλο-ς papyrus, book, 
χρυσ-ίο-ν gold piece, χρῦσό-ς gold, 
πεδ-ίο-ν plain, πέδο-ν ground, 
xwp-io-v fortress, χῶρο-ς, χώρα place. 

b. Sutfix -ἰσκο, -ἰσκᾶ, NOM. -ίσκος Τη880., -ἰσκὴη fem.: 
veav-ioxos youth, youngster, veavia-s youth, 
παιδ-ίσκος little boy, παῖς (παιδ-) child. 


παιδ-ίσκη little girl. 


6. Also the suffixes -dpuo-v, -ίδιο-ν, -vrAALo-v : 


παιδ-άριο-ν little chap, παῖς (παιδ-) child, 
οἰκ-ίδιο-ν little house, οἶκος house, 


Σωκρατ-ίδιο-ν dear little Sokrates, Σωκράτης (-εσ-) Sokrates, 
eid-trANo-v little picture, idyl, εἶδος (εἰδεσ-) form. 


432 Words denoting a place are made with the suffixes -ιο, -eo, 
-tnpio, -wv, Often with some change at the end of the stem. 


a. Suffix -co, -εἰο, nom. -ἰον, -εἰον, neut. : 


μυροπώλεοιο-ν perfumer’s shop, μυροπώλης perfume-seller, 
κουρεῖο-ν (27) barber’s shop, κουρεύ-ς barber, 
μουσ-εῖο-ν place of the muses, μοῦσα MUSE. 


In other instances the force of the ending is vague : 


dyyeto-v (for dyyeo-tov) dish, ἄγγος (ἀγγεσ-) dish, vessel, 
vessel, . 
σημεῖο-ν sign, note, σῆμα (σηματ-) mark. 


Ὁ. Suffix -rypw, nom. -rypwv, neut., apparently made by 
adding -ἰὸ to nouns in -ryp (405), which were later crowded 
out by the forms in -rys: 


433 


DENOMINATIVE NOUNS 157, 


δικασ-τήρ-ιοτν court, (δικαστήρ) δικαστής judge, 

βουλευ-τήρ-ιο-ν council-hall, (βουλευ-τήρ) βουλευτής coun- 
crlor, 

δεσμω-τήρ-ιο-ν Prison, δεσμό-ς bond. 


Probably in some cases the starting-point was the verb, 
without thought of an intervening noun: 


ἐργασ-τήριο-ν workshop, ἐργάζομαι (épyad-) work. 
c. Suffix -wv, nom. -év, masc., with loss of a final stem- 
vowel : 


ἀμπελ-ών vineyard, ἄμπελος VINE, 
παρθεν-ών martden’s room, παρθένο-ς maiden, 
ἀνδρ-ών men’s hall, ἀνήρ (avdp-) man. 


Some of these are enlarged by the ending -irid, nom. -trs, 
fem. : 


ἀνδρων-ῖτις men’s quarters, - γυναικων-ῖτις women’s quarters. 


Nouns denoting descent (patronymics) are made from names 
of persons by adding -da or -ἰδᾶ, nom. -dys or -idys, masc., and 
-§ or -5, nom. -(d)s or -is, fem., sometimes with changes at 
the end of the stem. 
a. Boped-dys, fem. Boped-s, son (daughter) of Bopéa-s, 
Αἰνεά-δης Αἰνέας (Αἰνείας). 
Nouns of this type caused -άδης and -ds to be taken as 
endings for making other names : 
Θεστι-άδης, Θεστι-άς (-a6-), Θέστιο-ς, 
᾿Ασκληπι-άδης, ᾿Ασκλήπιο-ς. 
Names of this type caused -ἰάδης to be taken as an ending 
to form other nouns: 


Τελαμων-ιάδης, Τελαμών. 

b. Κεκροπ-ίδης, fem. Κεκροπ-ίς, Κέκροψ (Κεκροπ-), 
Κρον-ίδης, Κρόνο-ς, 
Δανα-ίδης, fem. Δανα-ίς (-ιδ), Advao-s. 


6. Many such words were ordinary proper names, not de- 
noting descent : Εὐριπίδης, Βακχυλίδης, ᾿Αριστείδης. 


434 


435 


436 


158 WORD-FORMATION 


d. These endings were probably at first less definite in 
meaning, like -ἰο (424), and that more general force appears 
in some words, especially in poetry. 


Nouns (and adjectives) that mark a person as belonging to 
some people or city (gentiles) are made with the suffixes -ev, -τᾶ, 
«ἰδ, -71. These are but special uses under headings already 
given. 


a. Suffix -ev (cp. 480 a), fem. -d (cp. 498 b and d) : 
Meyap-evs, fem. Meyap-is (-1d-), Megarian, Μέγαρα (neut. pl.), 


EiBo-e'-s, fem. Εῤβο-ίς (-1d-) of Huboia, EvBoua, 

Κηφισι-εύς of the Kephisian deme, Κηφισία. 
b. Suffix -ra, fem. -τιδ (cp. 480 b): 

Αἰγινή-της, fem. Αἰγινῆ-τις of Argina, Aiywa, 

Συβαρί-της, fem. Συβαρῖ-τις Sybarite, Σύβαρι-ς, 

Ἠπειρώ-της, fem. Ἠπειρῶ-τις Epirote, Ἤπειρο-ς. 


In several the ending seems to be -wrys, -ῶτις : 
Σικελι-ώτης, fem. Σικελιτῶτις, Sicilian, Σικελίᾳ. 


Π. COMPOSITION 


Compound words are analyzed by dividing into two 
members only ; if either member is itself a compound, 
that is treated in the same way, and so on. 


a. A few particles or adverbs are mere groups of three 
or more separate words, which might have been printed sepa- . 
rately with no great change of meaning. Such are τοι-γαρ-οῦν, 
κατ-αντι-πέρᾶς. These are not included here. 


The second member alone of a compound carries the 
inflection, as verb, noun, or adjective. The first mem- 
ber is an uninflected word—as a preposition, or the 
adverb εὖ, or the inseparable ἀ(ν)- or δυσ- (441, 444) 
—or is used in the stem-form, 


457 


438 


COMPOUND VERBS 159 


a. In the pronoun ὅστις both parts are declined (220). 

b. In a few words the first member is a noun in some case- 
form: νεώσ-οικοι ship-houses, vavoi-ropos passable by ships, ὅδοι- 
πόρος traveler (ddo- locative, 228), ὀρει-βάτης walking on the 
mountain, Ἑλλήσ-ποντος Helle’s sea, Hellespont. 


Compound Verbs 


Prepositions alone can stand as the first member of 
a compound verb; the second member remains un- 
changed. The name preposition (πρό-θεσις) arose 
from this use. 

For sound changes see 32, 42, 50, 52. 

a. All prepositions were first adverbs, modifying the verb. 
When the connection with a verb became very close, the two 
were regarded as one word, a compound; but the older use 
was also retained. Especially in poetry a preposition may be 
written separately (¢mesis, τμῆσις cutting) as an adverb, which 
in prose would be joined to the verb. (Cp. English se¢ off and 
offset, trodden down and downtrodden. The older use is still 
very common with English prepositions.) 

Ὁ. Note applications of 435. Thus συν-αναβαίνω go up with, 

a compound of σύν and ἀναβαίνω, which is a compound of 
ἀνά and Baivo. 
a. Not every verb that begins with a preposition is 
a compound; it may be a denominative (415-428) 
from a compound noun or adjective. Thus ὑποπτεύω 
suspect is from the compound ὕπτοπτος, but is not 
itself a compound. 

b. So, too, other denominative verbs from com- 
pounds are not themselves compounds. Thus vav- 
μαχέω fight by seais from ναυ-μάχος (446 a), but is 
not itself a compound of vats and a verb (487) ; 


489 


440 


ΔΔῚ 


Του WORD-FORMATION 


εὐτυχέω is from εὐτυχής (447), but is not itself a 
compound of εὖ and a verb. 


Compound Nouns and Adjectives 


The first member of a noun or adjective may be a 


preposition or adverb (440, 441), a verb-stem (442), 
or the stem of a noun or adjective (443). The second 
member is the stem of a noun, adjective, or verb, 
with the changes or additions that were felt to be 
natural for declension. 


a. The accent is generally recessive, but there are many 
exceptions; the most easily classified will be mentioned. 


a. A preposition may be prefixt simply as an adverb 
to some nouns and adjectives, with no further change 
than with verbs (487) : 


ἄν-οδος way or march up, dvd, 600s, 
ἀπό-στασις standing off, revolt, ἀπό, στάσις, 
ἐπι-βουλή a plan against, ἐπί, βουλή, 
σύμ-πας all together, σύν, πᾶς, 
συν-αίτιος jointly causing, σύν, αἴτιος. 


Ὁ. Different from these are nouns derived from compound 
verbs and adjectives : 


σύνθημα watchword (407), from συν-τίθημι, : 

προθυμία eagerness (429 b), πρό-θυμος (447 Ὁ), 

ἀποικία colony (429 b), ἄπ-οικος (448). 
But in some cases either method may have been followed. 


The adverbs πᾶν altogether, εὖ well, also the insep- 
arables a(v)- not and dvo- zl, are prefixt in like 
manner to a few adjectives, and the last three to 
many verbals in -ros: ; 


COMPOUND NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 161 


_ mav-copos exceedingly wise, σοφός Wise, 


442 


παν-τλήμων all-enduring, wretched, τλήμων wretched, 
εὐ-δόκιμος well-approved, glorious, δόκιμος approved, 
ἀ-δόκιμος un-approved, in-glorious, 


d-dtvatos un-able, im-possible, δυνατός able, possible, 
dvo-radas in hard misery, τάλᾶς wretched, 
εὔ-τακτος well-arranged, τακτός arranged, 
ἄττακτος un-arranged, ! 
δυσ-πόρευτος hardly passable, mopevtés passable. 


a. But these simple compounds must not be confused with 
those described in 447, which have the same first member in 
a different relation to the second (444). 


A yerb-stem stands in some adjectives and nouns as 
the first member—either the stem simply, or with an 
added yowel, or with added -σι (-o before a vowel). 
The second member is thought of as object (accusa- 
tive, genitive, or dative) of the first. Cp. English 
break-neck, tell-tale, loose-strife. | 


dpy--réextov master-builder, ἄρχω rule, τέκτων burlder, 

dhep-eyyvos bringing surety, φέρω bring, ἐγγύη surety, 
capable, | 

λιπ-ο-ταξία desertion (leaving λείτω (λιπ-)ὺ leave, τάξις 
the ranks), rank, 

λῦ-σι-ττελής paying charges, λύω loose, τέλος charge, 
profitable, 

πείθεαρχος obedient to command, πείθομαι obey, ἀρχή rule, 

μῖσ-ό-δημος hating the people, μίσξω hate, δῆμος people, 

φιλ-άνθρωπος loving man, φιλέω love, ἄνθρωπος man. 


The last two perhaps belong rather under 449. 


a. The syllables dpx-, dpxe-, dpyi-, came to be a mere prefix 
meaning leader, first, Eng. arch-, archr-. 


443 A noun or adjective as the first member appears as a 


bare stem, and this may suffer various changes. 
11 


444 


162 WORD-FORMATION 


a. The final vowel, or even more, may be lost or changed : 


φύλ-αρχος tribe-leader, pidcy tribe, 

τριήρ-αρχος captain of a trireme, τριήρης trireme, 

στρατ-ηγός army-leader, στρατός army, 

ῥᾷ-θῦμος of easy spirit, lazy, pa-dvos easy; the ending of 


derivation, -διος, is omitted. 


b. Since o-stems were especially frequent in such com- 
pounds, they became a model to which other stems were often 
conformed. Hence o may replace a final a or the suffix -ec, 
or may be added to a consonantal stem : 


λυρ-ο-ποιός lyre-maker, λύρα lyre. 
oxev-o-popos baggage carrying, St. oxeveo- baggage. 
μητρ-ό-πολις mother-city, st. μητ(ε)ρ- mother. 


6. Contractions may occur : 


κακοῦργος (Epic κακο[]έργος) evil-doer. 

tav-ovpyos doing anything and everything, scoundrel—per- 
haps made on the analogy of κακοῦργος. 

τιμωρός (for τῖμα-ξορός) upholding honor. 


Certain elements enter as the first member into many 
compounds, in which they have the force of an adverb 
or an adjective, as the second member may require. 


These are (cp. 441): 


εὖ well, in composition well, easily, or good, 
dus- (inseparable), 2/, with difficulty, or bad, 
a(v)- negative (inseparable), not, or no, 

npt- (inseparable), Lat. semi-, half. 


With these may be put καλλι-, which is not used sepa- 
rately, but in many compounds takes the place of καλός or 
καλῶς. 

a. In ἀ-κόλουθος accompanying, following (κέλευθος path), 
and d-Opoos or ἄθροος thronging, together (Opdos noise of a 


445 


COMPOUND NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 163 


crowd) the first element is ἀ- copulative (for σα-) related to 
ἅμα and ὁμο- together. 


In meaning, when the first member represents a noun 
or adjective, the relation between the two parts may 
vary greatly, and is gathered from their separate 
meanings ; especially the poets make combinations 
very freely. (Even greater freedom is usual in Eng- 
lish.) But certain classes are large, and these it is 
convenient to name. 

a. Determinative Compounds.—The first member 
makes more specific (determines) the meaning of the 
second ; the whole denotes a particular case of what 
the second part denotes alone—e. σ᾿, school-boys are 
one class of boys, well-made is made in a particular 
way (446). 

b. Possessive Compounds.—These are adjectives, 
being noun-compounds of the determinative class, but 
with the idea of possession understood. Thus yellow- 
throat does not mean a yellow throat, but a bird hav- 
ing a yellow throat; the idea of having is not ex- 
pressed, but from frequent use is understood. In 
English many of these end in -e/, on the model of 
participles: bald-headed, warm-hearted, sword-shaped 
(447). 

ce. Prepositional-Phrase Compounds.—A phrase con- 
sisting of a preposition and its object is made a single 
word, with the force, and in Greek the inflection, of 
an adjective (which like other adjectives may become 
a noun). Thus out-door sports are played out of 
doors, an under-ground passage is sub-terranean (448), 


446 


164 WORD-FORMATION 


Determinative Compounds (445 a) are of two classes, 
not always distinguishable. 

a. Dependent Compounds: the first member is a 
noun that may be regarded as modifying the second, 
as if dependent on it in some case-relation : 


atpat-nyos leader of an army, στρατό-ς, -ηγός (ἄγω), 
Aox-ayos leader of a company, λόχος, -ayds (ἄγω), 
λογο-γράφος speech-writer, λόγος, γράφος (γράφω), 
ναυ-μάχος fighting with ships, ναῦς, -μάχος (μάχομαι), 
στρατό-πεδον Camp, στρατοῦ πέδον, 
λογο-ποιός speech-maker, inventor of λόγους ποιῶν, 

tales, 
χειρ-ο-ποίητος hand-made, χερσὶ ποιητός, 
ὑδρ-ο-φόρος water-carrrer, ὕδωρ, -φόρος (φέρω), 
αὐτό-ματος self-impelled, αὐτός, TOOt pa-, | 
τριήρης triply-fitted, τρεῖς, ἀραρίσκω. 


b. Descriptive Compounds: the first member is an 
adjective modifying.a noun as the second, or is an 
adverb modifying an adjective or participle as the 
second. (Cp. English d/ue-bird and new-born.) De- 


scriptive compounds are fewer than dependents. 


pov-apxos sole ruler, μόνος, ἀρχός, 
μεσ-ημβρία (49) mid-day, μέση ἡμέρα, 

ἀκρ-ό-πολις upper city, citadel, ἄκρα πόλις, 
ψευδ-ο-μαρτυρίαᾳ false witness, ψευδὴς μαρτυρία, 
ἡμίονος half-ass, mule, ἡμι- (444), ὄνος, 
npt-Bpwros half-eaten, βιβρώσκω eat, 

εὔτδηλος quite clear, ev, δῆλος, 

περίεργος over-active, περί, -epyos (root épy-). 


ce. Many determinatives have as latter member a word that 
does not occur separately, or not in that sense (410) ; in some 
cases the lack is accidental. Thus ἀρχός, dyds (a), dywyds are 


COMPOUND NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 165 


found separately, but not -yyos, -ypados, -μαχος, -ποιος : while 


φόρος, δόμος, δρόμος are used, but not in the sense in which 
they form many compounds. 

d. Determinatives of the o-declension, if the second part 
is active, accent the penult if that is short, otherwise the ulti- 
ma: λιθο-βόλος stone-throwing, ναυ-μάχος, Aoyo-rows. (But not 
compounds in -apxos and -oxos, which have recessive accent ; 
and other exceptions occur.) 


Possessive Compounds (445 b).—In these the idea of 
having is added in thought to a determinative ; in a 
few the added idea is rather that of being: 


τρίπους having three feet, three-footed, — 

πολυ-άνθρωπος having many men, populous, 

dve-ropos having a hard passage, 

ev-vous well-minded, kindly, 

εὐ-τυχής having good fortune, fortunate, 

ὁμο-τράπεζος having the same table, table-companion, 

ὁμό-λογος having common speech or ratio, agreeing, homologous. 
ὅμο- appears only in composition ; but cp. the adv. ὁμοῦ, 

adj. ὅμοιος. 

θεο-ειδής having a god’s appearance, godlike (εἶδος). 

From -ειδης, contracting with a preceding vowel, was formed 
the derivative ending -ώδης, and English -ord. 

a. Many compounds of this class begin with ἀ(ν)- negative, 
which may be either a not, denying the idea of possession, or 
a no modifying the noun : 
ἅ-πορος not having a passage, or having no passage, 
ἄ-τῖμος without honor, disfranchised. 

b. Prepositions often have an adjectival force in such com- 
pounds (cp. 440 a) : 
πρό-θυμος having a forward spirit, eager (θυμός), 
ἀμφίθυρος having a door on both sides, double-doored (θύρα), 
μέτ-οικος having one’s dwelling with, resident alien (οἶκος), 


448 


449 


166 WORD-FORMATION 


ἔν-θεος having a god within, inspired, 

ἔφ-εδρος having a by-scat (one who has drawn a “ bye”), 
πάρ-εδρος having a seat beside, assessor. 
Prepositional-Phrase Compounds (445 ¢).—These con- 
sist of a preposition and its noun, with the idea of 


being added : 


παρά-δοξος contrary to opinion, unex- παρὰ δόξαν, 
pected, | 
παρά-νομος against the law, wllegal, παρὰ νόμον, 
παρα-θαλάττιος beside the sea, παρὰ θάλατταν, 
ἔμεπορος on ὦ journey, traveler, importer, ἐν πόρῳ, 
ἐν-θύμιος in the heart or mind, ἐν θυμῷ, 
ἐφ-όδιος for a journey, ἐφ᾽ ὁδῷ or ddr, 
ἐφ-ήμερος lasting for a day, ἐφ᾽ ἡμέρᾷ, 
éri-xepov something on the hand, wages, ἐπὶ χειρί, 
προ-άστιος suburban, πρὸ ἄστεως, 
ἐμ-μελής in tune, ἐν μέλει, 
πλημ-μελής out of tune, πλὴν (beyond) μέλους, 
ἔκ-τοπος out of place, strange, ἐκ τόπου, 
ἀπό-δημος out of the country, ἀπὸ δήμου, 
ὑπ-εύθυνος subject to accounting, ὑπ᾽ εὐθύναις. 


a. From the phrase ἐκ ποδῶν was made the adverb ἐκποδών 
out of the way. On this model was formed the opposite ἐμ- 
ποδών in the way ; from this was formed the adjective ἐμπόδιος 
and the verb ἐμποδίζω (418). In like manner from the phrase 
διὰ χειρῶν through or in the hands, is made the verb διαχειρίζω 
have in hand, manage. 


Instead of a preposition the first member is some- 
times a verbal adjective governing a noun as the sec- 
ond member, the whole being an adjective : 
ἀξιό-λογος worth mentioning, ἄξιος λόγου, 
ἀξιόχρεως good for the obligation, suf- ἄξιος χρέους, 

fictent, 


COMPOUND NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 167 


ἰσό-θεος equal to a yod, godlike, ἴσος θεῷ, 
φιλο-κίνδυνος fond of danger, φίλος κινδύνου. 


a. These are much like the verb-object compounds in 442 ; 
they are also like dependent compounds (446 a), in that one 
member depends on the other. But they are perhaps more 
like prepositional-phrase compounds (448) ; in both classes a 
familiar phrase, in which the first word governs the second, 
has received the inflection of an adjective. 


460 


451 


452 


453 


Ill. SYNTAX 


Syntax (σύνταξις arranging together) treats of the 
use of words in combination, usually in sentences, 
which may be simple, compound, or complex. 


For undeveloped and incomplete sentences see 490-493. 


I. SIMPLE SENTENCES 


A simple sentence consists of one finite verb, with. or 


‘without other words. 


According to the mode of the verb we ἀράν τος 
Indicative, Subjunctive, Optative, and Imperative sen- 
tences. Some forms of Negative and Incomplete sen- 
tences will also be treated separately. 


INDICATIVE SENTENCES 


The Indicative presents the action or state as real, in 
assertions, denials, exclamations, and questions. (But 
see 461 c, 467 c.) 


The tenses are used nearly as in English, but not altogether 

so; and their force (like that of all words and forms) is af- 

fected by the general meaning of the verb, by the context, or 

by other circumstances. The leading types are illustrated in 

454-470; those in which Greek agrees with English are 
168 


454 


455 


456 


INDICATIVE SENTENCES 169 


treated briefly, more prominence being given to those in 
which the two languages differ. 


Present Indicative. 

ἃ. Οὐδεὶς ἔτι ἡμῖν μάχεται no one fights with us any longer. 
ΑΝ. 11. 1, 4. 

Ὁ. Κῦρον μεταπέμπεται Cyrus he sends for. ΔΝ. τ. 1, 2. 
(Historical Present.) 

c. Τί ἐξελαύνετε ἡμᾶς; why are you driving (trying to 
drive) us out? H. τι. 4, 20. (Present of Endeavor.) 

ἃ. ᾿Αλγῶ πάλαι 7 have long been sorrowing. S. ν. 806. (In- 
clusive Present, of an action begun in the past and still con- 
tinuing—generally with an expression of time. English com- 
monly uses the progressive perfect, as above.) 

6. Oi φρονοῦντες εὖ κρατοῦσι πανταχοῦ they that have judg- 
ment everywhere prevail. S. a1. 1252. (Universal or Generalized 
Present.) 

f. The present of ἥκω am come and οἴχομαι am gone may 
usually be translated by the perfect, have come, etc. Some- 
times also νϊκῶ am victorious, and some others. 


Future Indicative. 

ἃ. Σπονδὰς ἢ πόλεμον ἀπαγγελῶ; Shall 1 report a truce or 
war? Ay. τι. 1, 23. λήψεται μισθὸν τάλαντον he shall receive 
a talent as reward. AN. τι. 2, 380, σὺν τούτοις μαχούμεθα with 
these we will fight. An. τι. 1,12. οὐκ εὐθὺς ἀφήσω αὐτόν 1 
shall not let him go at once. Ap, 39 e. . 

b. In the second person, with ov, a question in the future 
may become a lively request or command: 

Οὔκουν ἐρεῖς ποτε; speak out! (won't you ever speak ?) 
S. an. 244, 

For οὐ μή with the fut. see 489 Ὁ. 


Perfect Indicative. 

a. ᾿ΑἈπολελοίπᾶσιν ἡμᾶς they have left us. AN. 1-4, 8, 
ἀκηκόατε, ἑωράκατε, πεπόνθατε you have heard, have 
seen, have suffered. 1. 12, 100. 


457 


458 


170 SIMPLE SENTENCES 


b. A completed act may result in a continued state, and 
some perfects are best rendered by an English present : 

ἔγνωκα yap yes, 1 know him (have recognized, Lat. novi). 
Ὁ ΟΥ lL Li. 

Among the most frequent of these perfects are 


ἕστηκα (have become set), stand (868), 

τέθνηκα (have died), am dead, 

βέβηκα (have placed my feet firmly), stand firm, 
πέφυκα (have grown, been born), am, 

κέκτημαι (have acquired), possess, 

μέμνημαι (have become mindful), remember, 
ὄλωλα (have gone to ruin), am ruined, 

πέποιθα (have believed), trust. 


c. With the above belong some perfects that show little or 
no trace of a perfect meaning. Such are 

ἔοικα am like, ἔοικε rt 18 likely, 

εἴωθα am accustomed, 

δέδοικα, δέδια fear, and in poetry many others, δέδορκα sce 
(δέρκομαι) being especially common : 

Σὺ καὶ δέδορκας κοὺ βλέπεις thou hast sight and seest not. 
S. or. 419, 

ἃ. In compound perfects (as in English) the form of εἰμι 
(or ἔχω in the sense of εἶμι) expresses a continued state, the 
participle a completed act ; but in use there is often no clear 
distinction between these compound forms and simple forms. — 


The Pluperfect transfers the present force of the perfect to 
past time : 

Οἰνόη ἐτετείχιστο Oinoé was (already) fortified. T. τι. 18. 
εἱστήκη 1 was standing. τότε δ᾽ ἀφειστήκεσαν but at that 
time they had revolted. An. τ. 1,6. προειστήκει τοῦ ἕενικοῦ 
he was in command of the mercenary force. An. τ. 2, 1. 

a. For the pluperfect with ἄν see 469. 


The Future Perfect denotes an act to be completed in the 
future, or (often) a future state: 


459 


460 


land 


INDICATIVE SENTENCES 171 


Εὐθὺς ᾿Αριαῖος ἀφεστή ἕξει, ὥστε φίλος ἡμῖν οὐδεὶς NeXelWe- 
ται Ariaios will at once withdraw, so that not a friend will be 
leftus. An. τι. 4,5. δίκαια πεπονθὼς ἐγὼ ἔσομαι ὑφ᾽ ὑμῶν 7 
Shall have received justice at your hands. Av. 41 e. 


The Imperfect generally presents the action either as 
continuing or as repeated in the past: 

Στράτευμα συνελέγετο an army was being col- 
lected. Δν. τ. 1,9. πολλὰς προφάσεις ηὕρισκεν he 
kept finding many pretexts. Ax. τι. 8, 31. ταῦτα τοῖς 
φίλοις διεδίδου these he used to distribute to his 
friends, Av. 1.9, 22 ταῦτα πράξας ἐκέρδαινον μὲν 
οὐδὲν, ἐμαυτὸν δ᾽ εἰς Kivduvoyv καθίστην in doing that 
(assuming that I did it) J was gaining nothing and 
was bringing myself into danger. 11. 7, 82. 

a. To be continually or repeatedly engaged in an action 
may imply endeavor, without success (cp. 454 ¢) : 

Κλέαρχος τοὺς στρατιώτᾶς ἐβιάζετο ἰέναι, οἱ δ᾽ αὐτὸν ἔβαλ- 
λον Klearchos tried to force the soldiers to go ; but they threw 
stones at him (as often as he tried). Ay. 1. 3, 1. 


The Imperfects χρῆν or ἐχρῆν, ἔδει, προσῆκε, εἰκὸς ἦν, 
and the like, state an obligation or propriety in past 
time. Often the context implies that the obligation 
was not met—that something was not or is not as 
it should be. 

Οὐδὲ θαμίζεις ἡμῖν καταβαίνων εἰς τὸν Πειραιᾶ: 
χρῆν μέντοι you dont come down to us in Piraeus 
at all often; yet you ought to (i.e. 7 was your duty 
to come often, and you haven't been doing i). P. x. 
8c. τί σιγᾷς; οὐκ ἐχρῆν σιγᾶν why silent? thou 
shouldst not be silent (i. 6., propriety required that you 


461 


172 SIMPLE SENTENCES 


speak out, and you have not spoken). ἘΦ. πῖρρ, 297. ἀλλ᾽ 
ἐχρὴν τι δρᾶν you ought to have done something. 
Ar. κ᾿ 568. ἔδει yap TO Kal TO ποιῆσαι καὶ TO μὴ ποιῆσαι 
why, yes, we should have done this and this, and not 
have done that. D. 9, 68. τούσδε yap μὴ ζῆν ἔδει for 
these ought not to be alive. 8. ν. 418 εἰκὸς ἢν ὑμᾶς 
προορᾶσθαι αὐτά the fitting thing was that you should 
foresee it (but you did not), Ὑ. v.78. μένειν yap 
ἐξὴν for it was in his power to stand his ground Ue 
might have stood his ground). Ὁ... 8, 17. 

a. In these cases the obligation or propriety is thought of 
as existing in the past, perhaps before the act, and as real ; 
the action or state resulting from failure to meet the obliga- 
tion may be present, or may continue to the present, though 
beginning in the past. In some few cases where the Greek 


took this point of view, it seems to us as if ἄν were needed 
(461 c). 


The Imperfect with av (666) presents the action 


a. As occurring from time to time in the past, on 
occasion : 


᾿Αναλαμβάνων αὐτῶν Ta ποιήματα διηρώτων av 
αὐτούς taking up their poems, I would question them 
(different poets, at one time and another). Ap. 22 b. 
ἠγανάκτουν av LI used to be indignant (whenever 
people spoke hardly of me). 1. 7, 12. 

b. As something that was to be expected or was 
probably true : 

Ti av φανερὸς γενόμενος ὑφ᾽ ὑμῶν ἔπασχον; 
what treatment was I likely to get from you in case of 
detection? . 7%, 12. πρὸς ποῖον ἂν ἔπλει; to what 


INDICATIVE SENTENCES Lio 


man was he probably sailing? (can he have been sail- 
ing?) S. vr. 572. τότε ὀψὲ ἦν καὶ Tas χεῖρας οὐκ ἂν 
καθεώρων by that time tt was late, and they would 
not be likely to sce the hands (raised in voting). 
Sa 7}. 


e. As something that would have been in the past, 
or would be now, in an imaginary case, known to be 
unreal (Hypothetical Indicative; cp. 467 ο, 468, 469) : 

Τότε δ᾽ αὐτὸ τὸ πρᾶγμα ἂν ἐκρίνετο ἐφ᾽ αὑτοῦ 
but in that case the matter would have been decided by 
itself. D. 18, 224. κλύειν ἂν οὐδ᾽ ἅπαξ ἐβουλόμην 
“ should not wish to hear it even once, 5. v. 1389. 

These three uses are closely related; the third is by far 
the most frequent ; the second and third can not always be 


distinguished. Only the context shows which meaning is in- 
tended, and whether (under 6) past or present time is meant. 


ἃ. Ἐβουλόμην av I should wish, with the infinitive, is the 
regular way of saying J wish something were different. Greek 
puts the suggestion of unreality with the leading verb, Eng- 


lish puts it with the subordinate clause. 


462 


᾿Εβουλόμην ἂν αὐτοὺς ἀληθῆ λέγειν: μετῆν yap ἂν καὶ 
ἐμοὶ τούτου τἀγαθοῦ μέρος I wish they were telling the truth; . 
too should have a share in that blessing. 1. 12, 22. 


The Aorist Indicative presents an action simply as 
past; it corresponds most often to the English simple 
past (or to the Latin historical perfect) : 


Ἐνταῦθ᾽ ἔμεινεν there he remained. τῇ στρατιᾷ 
ἀπέδωκε μισθόν he paid the army wages. AN. τ. 2, 12. 
ἦλθον, εἶδον, ἐνίκησα vent, vidi, υἱοί, “ came, saw, con 
quered, Piut. Caes., 50, 


463 


464 


465 


466 


174 SIMPLE SENTENCES 


Greek often prefers the aorist, stating something merely as a 
past occurrence, where English uses the pluperfect or the 
perfect : 

Kai στρατηγὸν δὲ αὐτὸν ἀπέδειξε he (had) appointed him 
general also. ΑΝ. τ. 1,3. πολλάκις ἐθαύμασα L have often 
wondered. M.1. 1, 1. 


In verbs whose present denotes a continued state, the 
aorist often denotes the beginning of that state, or 
entrance into it (/nceptive or Ingressive Aorist) : 


ἀσθενῶ am ill, ἠσθένησα fell sick, 
δακρύω Weep, ἐδάκρυσα burst into tears, 
βασιλεύω am king, ἐβασίλευσα became king, 
σιγῶ am silent, ἐσΐγησα became silent. 


Especially common is ἔσχον got, acquired, from 
ἔχω have: οὐκ ἔσχε τὴν γνώμην he did not adopt the 
view. Ὁ. 18, 391. τότε δὲ προδεδωκέναι πάντας ἂν 
ἔσχεν αἰτίᾶν in that case (Athens) would have got 
the blame of betraying all. D. 18, 200. Ἱππίᾶς ἔσχε 
τὴν ἀρχήν LHippias received the rule, T. vi. 54. 

a. This ingressive force extends to all the modes and to 
the participles. 


General truths, commonly expressed by the universal present 
(454 6) are sometimes stated in the aorist (nomic Aorist, 
γνώμη a proverb) : 

Τύχη τέχνην ὥρθωσεν, οὐ τέχνη τύχην ’Tis fortune gives 
success to art, not art to fortune. Men. 


The distinctions between the simple aorist and the imperfect 
are sometimes subtle and elusive. Also any action may be 
looked upon as merely occurring or as continuing ; the choice 
of tense depends on the point of view. Hence both tenses 
occur together freely in the same narrative, often where Eng- 


467 


INDICATIVE SENTENCES 175 


lish can not make the distinction without clumsiness. The 
beginner should watch the tenses carefully, and so gradually 
learn the distinction. 


The Aorist with av (666 ; cp. 461) presents the action 


a. As occurring from time to time in the past, on 
occasion : 

᾿Εκλεγόμενος τὸν ἐπιτήδειον ἔπαισεν av picking 
out the right man, he would strike him (.e., he did 
this on various occasions). ΑΝ. τι. 3, 11. 


b. As something that was to be expected, or was 
probably true: 

ε - le “A Ψ 3 Ἂ > , Lee 

O θεᾶσάμενος πᾶς av τις ἀνὴρ ἠράσθη ddios 
εἶναι every man who saw τέ would get hot to be a war- 

‘ A = ε \ Ν Sia? Phe pit ΄ 

7207. ΔΕ. R. 1022. πὼς ἂν O μὴ παρὼν ἐγωτισ ἡ δί- 
κησα how was I, one who wasn't there, to do you any 
harm? D. 87,57. ἐπερρώσθη δ᾽ ἂν τις ἐκεῖνο ἰδών 
any one on seeing that would have been strengthened. 
H. m. 4,18. τούτου tis av σοι τἀνδρὸς δρᾶν ἀμείνων 
ηὑρέθη; who could have been found better in action 


than this man? (i.e., no one was likely to be found). 
S. ar. 119 f. 


e. As something that would have occurred in an 
imaginary case, known to be unreal (//ypothetical 
Indicative) : , 

Ἐποίησαν μὲν οὐδὲν ἂν κακόν, μὴ παθεῖν δ᾽ 
ἐφυλάξαντ᾽ ἂν ἴσως they would have done him no 
harm, but would perhaps have been on their guard 
against injury. D.9, 13. πρὶν γενέσθαι ἠπίστησεν 
av τις ἀκούσας before it happened, any one hearing 
of it would have refused to believe it, Ὑ. vu. 28. 


468 


469 


470 


176 ‘SIMPLE SENTENCES 


These three uses are closely related ; the third is far the 
most common ; the second and third can not always be dis- 
tinguished. 


a. The aorist with ἄν and the imperfect with ἄν referring to 
the past differ as do the simple aorist and imperfect (459, 
462, 466) ; but the difference often disappears in good trans- 
lation. 

b. The hypothetical indicative (461 ὁ and 467 0) is very 
common in complex sentences, especially when the imaginary 
situation, known to be unreal, is described in an ei clause 
(645, 649). 

The Pluperfect with ἄν is used as a hypothetical in- 
dicative when the real situation would be stated in 
the perfect : 

Ἔν τούτῳ τῷ τρόπῳ ἦσθα av pe τετιμωρού- 
μενος tn that way you would have revenged your- 
self on me (the fact being, οὐκ εἶ με τετἱμωρούμενος). 
Te ΤΗΣ 

a. The entire passage (L. 7, 20) illustrates the ease with 
which the different tenses may be combined in this use: Ἐμοὶ 
μὲν οὐδεμίαν ἂν ἀπολογίᾶν ὑπέλιπες, αὐτὸς δὲ. . . ἦσθα av pe 
τετιμωρούμενος, . .. οὐκ ἂν ἐδόκεις εἶναι συκοφάντης, . .. 
τότ᾽ ἂν πλεῖστον ἔλαβες you would have left me no defense (but 
you did leave me a defense, ὑπέλιπες), you would have revenged 
yourself (but you have not), you would not now seem to be ma- 


licious (but you do seem 80, δοκεῖς εἶναι συκοφάντης), you would 
have got most money (but οὐκ ἔλαβες). 


a. A past tense of the Indicative with εἴθε or εἰ yap 
(Lat. wtinam) expresses a hopeless and unattainable 
wish—that something had been that was not, or that 
something were now that is not. (Cp. 476.) 

With the imperfect, one wishes continuance; the 


471 


SUBJUNCTIVE SENTENCES ite 


fact wished away is generally present. With the 
aorist, one wishes attainment; the fact wished away 
is generally past. 

Et yap τοσαύτην δύναμιν εἶχον O that I had 
(οὐκ ἔχω) so much power! 18. av. 1072. εἴθ᾽ ἣν 
᾿Ορέστης πλησίον would that Orestes were near (he 
is not), E. ev. 282 εἴθε σοι τότε συνεγενόμην 
would that I had met you then (1 did not). Ν. τ. 9, 46. 
εἴθε oe μήποτ᾽ εἰδόμαν O that 7 had never seen 
thee (as I 414). 8. or. 1217. 

b. “Odedov owed, ought, with the infinitive, and 
with or without εἴθε or εἰ γάρ, has the same force; 
with the present infinitive it corresponds to the im- 
perfect, with the aorist infinitive it corresponds to 
the aorist: 

"ANN ὦφελε Κῦρος ζῆν Cyrus ought to be aline, 
ah! that Cyrus were living! Ax. τι. 1,4. μήποτ᾽ ὦ φε- 
λον λιπεῖν τὴν Σκῦρον O that L had never left Sky- 
ros. 8. » 969. 


SUBJUNCTIVE SENTENCES 


The Subjunctive is used to ask what action, or | 
whether some particular action, is likely, advisable, 
or desired. (Dubitative; negative μή.) Such ques- 
tions are often exclamatory, calling for no answer. 

a. In the first person : 

Ti πάθω ; what shall I experience? what will hap- 
pen tome? (Frequent, in many shades of meaning.) 
ἀμπλάκω Tov cov μόρου ; amT to fail of your fate? 


12 


472 


178 SIMPLE SENTENCES 


S. ay. 554. τί φῶμεν πρὸς ταῦτα; ἄλλο τι ἣ Opodo- 
γῶμεν; what shall we say to this? anything else 
than to agree? (shall we not agree?) Cr. 5B a τί 
δράσω; δεύτερον ληφθῶ κακός ; what shall I do? 
shall I be caught in wrong again? 8. ν. 908. πῶς 
λιπόναυς γένωμαι; how can I desert the fleet? 
A, λα. 222. μὴ ἀποκρΐἴΐνωμαι, ἀλλ᾽ ἕτερον εἴπω; 
shall I make no reply, but say something else? Rev. 
337 b. ἀλλὰ δὴ φυγῆς Tipnowpar; shall 7 then 
propose the penalty of exile? Av. 3te (Cp. τίνος 
ἀντιτιμήσομαι; Ar. 36b, the fut. ind. in the same 
sense. ) 


b. In the third person: 

Ποῖ τις οὖν φύγῃ; ποῖ μολὼν μενῶ ; whither shall 
one flee? where shall I go and abide? 8. a1. 408 1. εἶτα 
ταῦτ᾽ οὗτοι πεισθῶσιν ὑπὲρ αὑτῶν σε ποιεῖν ; this, 
then, are these people to believe you are doing for 
them? Ὁ. 22, 64. 


The Subjunctive may present the action as proposed, 
desired, or urged. (//ortative, in the first person; 
negative μή.) 


Ὦ παῖδες, ἱστώμεσθα my children, let us rise. 
5. or. 147. δεῦρο €€avactTaper εἰς τὴν αὐλὴν Kal 
περιιόντες αὐτοῦ διατρίψωμεν, εἶτα ἴωμεν let us 
rise, go out here into the court, and pass the time walk- 
ing about there (antil daylight); then let us go. 
Pr. 311a. φέρ᾽ ἐπ᾽ αὐτὴν tw let me go to her! (1 
want to go to her!) Ar. x. 291. φέρε δὴ καὶ τὰς μαρτυ- 


478 


474 


SUBJUNCTIVE SENTENCES 179 


pias ἀναγνῶ come, now, let me also read the testi- 
mony (I will now read).  D. 18, 267. 


Once in the second person, S. p. 300. 
The first person sing. is often introduced by φέρε. 


The Subjunctive with μή presents the action as not 
desired, as unadvisable, or as forbidden. (Prohdbi- 
tive. ) 

a. In the first person (not to be separated from 
the hortative subjunctive, 472) : 

Μὴ ἀναμένωμεν ἄλλους let us not wait for 
others, An. um. 1,24. μὴ δῆτ᾽ ἀδικη θῶ let me not be 
wronged (in entreaty; cp. Ὁ). 5. ox. 174. 

b. In the second person (aorist only) : 


Μὴ λίπῃς μ᾽ οὕτως μόνον leave me not thus alone. 
S. p. 470. 
6. In the third person (aorist only) : 


Μηδεὶς εἴπῃ let no one say. Ῥ. 9, 16 μηδενὶ τοῦτο 
παραστῇ let this occur to no one, 1. 12, 62. 


The Subjunctive with μή sometimes expresses what one fears 
and desires to avert; with p ov, what one fears will not be. 
This is a variety of the preceding (478), the starting-point of 
more common uses (see 610, 611): 

Μὴ σοὺς διαφθείρῃ γάμους may she not spoil thy mar- 
riage (i.e., 1 fear she will). E. au. 315. μὴ οὐ relays σοφούς 
you will not convince the wise, I fear. E. rro. 982. 

a. This is also softened to a cautious assertion, or made a 
question : 

Μὴ ἀγροικότερον 7 τὸ ἀληθὲς εἰπεῖν 1 fear it’s rather rude 
to speak the truth. Gor. 462 e. ἀλλὰ μὴ οὐ τοῦτ᾽ ἡ χαλεπόν 
but 1 suspect that is not difficult. Ap. 39 a. 


475 


476 


477 


478 


180 SIMPLE SENTENCES 


The Tenses of the subjunctive do not refer to differ- 
ences of time. ‘The present denotes continuance or 
repetition; the aorist, simple occurrence or attain- 
ment; the perfect (infrequent), denotes a completed 
act or a continued state. The distinction often dis- 
appears in translating, but is not to be overlooked. 


a. The time of independent subjunctives is regu- 
larly future ; see examples in 471-474. In Homer the 
subjunctive is often very like the future indicative in 
meaning, often also the same in form. 


OPTATIVE SENTENCES 


The Optative (without av) expresses a wish that 
something may be, in the future. (Negative μή.) 
This use has given the name to the mode. 

Εὖ ξυνεῖεν εἰσαεὶ θεοί the gods forever graciously 
abide with you! 8. or. 2%. οὕτω νϊκήσαιμί τ᾽ ἐγὼ 
καὶ νομιζοίμην σοφός so may I win the victory 
and be (ever) deemed wise. Ax. κ. 520. ὄλοιο may you 
die! (a curse on you!). μηδεὶς ταῦτ᾽ ὑμῶν ἐπι- 
νεύσειεν may none of you consent to this. D. 18, 324. 


Such a sentence may be introduced by εἴθε or εἰ γάρ, 
in poetry by εἰ alone (cp. 470): 

Εἴθε μήποτε γνοίης ὃς εἶ mayst thou never learn 
who thow art. 8. or. 1068. εἰ γὰρ ἐν τούτῳ εἴη may 
it only depend on that! Pr. 810 ἃ. 


Rarely the poets use the optative without ἄν as a hypotheti- 
cal optative (479, 482). 


OPTATIVE SENTENCES 181 


479 The Optative with av (666) expresses what would be 


480 


in a supposed case, or in any case likely to occur. 
(Hypothetical Optative; ep. the hypothetical indica- 
tive, 461, 467.) 

The time is not defined, except by the context, but 
is commonly future, often present, rarely past. Often 
the statement or question 15 universal as regards time, 
applying to past, present, and future alike: 

᾿Εγὼ ὀκνοίην ἂν εἰς τὰ πλοῖα ἐμβαίνειν L should 

hesitate myself to go aboard the boats. Δν. τ. 3,17. ἔνθα 
πολλὴν σωφροσύνην καταμάθοι av τις there one 
would learn (at any time) much self-control, Ax. 1. 9, 3. 
πρὸς βίαν δ᾽ οὐκ ἂν λάβοις and by force you would 
never take him. S. ν. 103. ἐμὲ μὲν yap οὐδὲν ἂν 
βλάψειεν: οὐδὲ γὰρ ἂν δύναιτο for he would not 
injure me a particle; he would not even be able to (in 
any circumstances). Ar. 30 ο. 
What is not really doubted may, from caution or from 
courtesy, be treated as not yet certain ; hence a wide 
range of meaning. Might, could, may, and even must, 
are often convenient in translating, but the Greek 
expression is not properly potential (cp. the last ex- 
ample in 479). 

Οὐκοῦν πόροις ἂν τήνδε δωρεὰν ἐμοί ; would you 
then grant me this gift? A. vs. 643. (Modest request.) 

Σὺ μὲν κομίζοις ἂν σεαυτόν you may take your- 
self off. 8. ax. 414. (Softened command.) 

Οὐκ ἂν μεθείμην τοῦ θρόνου 7 would not yield 
the chair (in any case), Ar. x. 830. (Determined re- 


Fusal.) 


481 


482 


182 SIMPLE SENTENCES 


Πῶς ἂν ὀλοίμαν; how should I find death? Ὁ 
that I might die! ¥. av. 864. (Passionate wish.) 

Ποῦ δητ᾽ ἂν εἶεν ot Ea; where may the strang- 
ers be? 8, ει. 1450. (Polite question, of a present fact.) 

Οὗτοι δὲ τάχ᾽ ἂν μείζω τινὰ σοφίᾶν σοφοὶ εἶεν 
but these men would be (are perhaps) wise in some 
greater wisdom. Av. 20a. (Assumed uncertainty, of 
a present fact.) 

Βουλοίμην av I should like is a frequent formula, a 
softened expression of wish. 


The circumstances to which the statement (or ques- 
tion) of the optative applies may not need mention, 
or may be suggested by an expression of time, place, 
manner, or may be more fully expressed by a par- 
ticiple, infinitive, or subordinate clause. Relative 
clauses and εἰ clauses (614 ff., 645 ff.) are often used 
for this purpose. This applies also to the hypotheti- 
cal indicative (461, 467). 

Thus in ἔνθα πολλὴν σωφροσύνην καταμάθοι ἄν τις (under 479) 
ἔνθα (with the context) means at court. The interrogatives 
πῶς, ποῦ, Tis ask what the circumstances are. τότε then and 
δικαίως Justly have a similar office. In θαυμάζοιμ᾽ ἂν εἰ οἶσθα 1 
should be surprised if you know (Pr. 812 ὁ), εἰ οἶσθα de- 
scribes the supposed case. In dvvar’ ἂν εἰ βούλοιο you could, 
should you so will (BE. Β. 947), εἰ βούλοιο describes the supposed 
case. In τότε δ᾽ αὐτὸ τὸ πρᾶγμα ἂν ἐκρίνετο ἐφ᾽ αὑτοῦ (461 c), 
τότε SUMS up in ἃ word the preceding description of the im- 
agined circumstances. 


In poetry the optative without ἄν is sometimes hypothetical : 
Τεάν, Zed, Sivacw τίς ἀνδρῶν ὑπερβασίὰ κατάσχοι; what hu 
man trespass would constrain thy power, O Zeus? 8... an. 605. 


IMPERATIVE SENTENCES 183 


483 The Tenses of the optative do not refer to time; they 


differ as do those of the subjunctive (475). The 
future optative is not used in simple sentences. 


IMPERATIVE SENTENCES 


484 ‘The Imperative presents an act as willed. It has 


485 


many shades of meaning, as of command, prohibition, 
request, wish, supposition, assent, submission. (Nega- 
tive μή.) 

The tenses differ as in the subjunctive and opta- 
tive (475, 483). 

᾿Αλλά νιν κομίζετ᾽ εἴσω, δμῶες but take her with- 
in, slaves. 8. av. 578. χαῖρε, χαίρετε rejoice, farewell. 
θάρσει have courage. ἰόντων let them go. Avy. τ. 4, 8. 
μηδεὶς ὑμῶν λεγέτω let no one of you speak. Ax. 1. 
3,15. ἔστω so be it. In ἴτω ὡς τῷ θεῷ φίλον, the ὡς 
clause marks ἴτω as a humble acceptance of divine 
ordering—let it go as God will. 


Imperative, subjunctive, and optative, in simple sentences, 
shade into one another in meaning, and are often found to- 
gether. 

A prohibition in the second or third person, if in the pres- 
ent tense, is always an imperative ; if in the aorist tense, it is 
nearly always a subjunctive. 

Myr’ ὀκνεῖτε μήτ᾽ ἀφῆτ᾽ ἔπος κακόν neither be afraid 
nor let fly an evil word. S. ox. 731. ταῦτά μοι πρᾶξον, τέκνον, 
καὶ μὴ Bpadive μηδ᾽ ἐπιμνησθῇς ἔτι Τροίας do that for me, 
my son, delay no more, nor mention Troy again. 8S. ν. 1899 f. 
παῦε, μὴ λέξῃς πέρα stop, speak no farther! S. pv. 1275. In 
An. ul. 2, 87, immediately after ἄλλως ἐχέτω let it be otherwise, 
there follow two optatives of wish, Χειρίσοφος ἡγοῖτο and δύο 


486 


487 


184 | SIMPLE SENTENCES 


στρατηγὼ ἐπιμελοίσθην, which are equally imperative in force, 
but perhaps more courteous in form. 


NEGATIVE SENTENCES 


Ov, or a compound of ov, simply denies. Μή, or a 
compound of μή, presents the negation as willed (de- 
sired, hoped, aimed at, assented to, etc.), or as part of 
an imagined or assumed case. Hence μή 18 the regu- 
lar negative in wishes (470, 476) and in subjunctive 
and imperative sentences (471-474, 484). For μή with 
the infinitive and participle see 564, 572, 579 a, 582 c. 


a. My with finite modes in simple sentences and principal 
clauses regularly expresses a willed negative of one shade or 
another. Both meanings are in so far one that both represent 
a negative as conceived, rather than as fact. 


After ov, alone or in composition, a compound of οὐ 
repeats and strengthens the negation ;* so also a com- 
pound of μή following μή: 


Ovmorte ἐρεῖ οὐδείς no man shall ever say. Av. 


1 3,5. μὴ φύγητε μηδαμῇ do not in any case flee. 
S. p. 789. 

a. If the second negative is simple, each has its separate 
force : 


Kai οὐ γράφει μὲν ταῦτα τοῖς δ᾽ ἔργοις ov ποιεῖ and he does not 
merely write this and then not carry it out in deeds. D. 9, 27. 
Here the first οὐ negatives the combination γράφει μὲν od δὲ 
ποιεῖ, thus in a sense canceling the second οὐ. 


1 Τὴ older English a similar doubling of the negative was common, 
and is still common among the uneducated, though not in good usage. 
Thus, from Shakspere, “1 can not go no further.’"—As You Like 
It, 11, 4. 


NEGATIVE SENTENCES 185 


488 My with the Indicative is used 


489 


a. Often in questions, intimating a hope of a nega- 
tive answer; so also dpa μή and μῶν (for μὴ οὖν). 

Μή τι νεώτερον ἀγγέλλεις ; no serious news, 7 hope ? 
Pr. 310 b. μὴ αὐτὸν οἴει φροντίσαι θανάτου ; you don’t 
suppose he was anxious about death, do you? Av. 38 a. 
μῶν τί σε ἀδικεῖ; he hasnt injured you, has he? 
Pr. 310 d. 

b. Sometimes in cautious statement of a present or past 
fact (cp. 474 and a), intimating a hope (perhaps ironical) that 
it is not true : 

᾿Αλλ᾽ ἄρα μὴ οὐ τοιαύτην ὑπολαμβάνεις σου τὴν μάθησιν ἔσεσθαι 
but perhaps you mean that your learning will be not like that. 
Pr. 312 ἃ. 

6. In both these uses μή has essentially the same force as 
with finite modes in other simple sentences (486 a). This is 
plainest in the former, but still traceable in the latter; a 
deprecatory statement is made, most often in the interrogative 
tone (a), but sometimes without it (Ὁ). The μή is an expres- 
sion of desire on the part of the speaker to negative the state- 
ment; but this desire may be merely assumed, or may be 
nothing more than surprise that the statement should be true. 


Idioms (of uncertain explanation). 


a. Ov py with the Subjunctive is a strong denial 
referring to the future: 

Ov τι μὴ ληφθῶ δόλῳ L shall not be caught by 
ὦ trick, Α. 5.88. οὐ μὴ πίθηται he will never 
yield. S. ». 105. οὐδεὶς μηκέτι μείνῃ τῶν πολε- 
μίων not one of the enemy will stay any longer. Ax. w. 
8,13. οὐκέτι μὴ δύνηται βασιλεὺς ἡμᾶς καταλα- 
Bey the king will no longer be able to catch us. Ax. 
I, 2, 12, 


490 


491 


186 SIMPLE SENTENCES 


Ὁ. Οὐ μὴ with the future indicative is sometimes a strong 
denial ; in the second person it may be a prohibition : 


Ov σοι μὴ μεθέψομαί ποτε 1 will never follow thee. S. 8. 
1052. οὐ μὴ λαλήσεις don’t keep chattering. Ax. N. 505. 


UNDEVELOPED AND INCOMPLETE SENTENCES 


Some expressions are not fully developed sentences, with a 
subject and predicate. Language begins with simpler forms, 
sometimes not even distinguishing parts of speech, as is clearly 
seen in children beginning to talk.t Such primitive forms 
remain in use, in all languages, especially in lively conver- 
sation and in poetry.” They are less formal, more natural for 
expressing emotion and simple thought. They are found in 
all stages of development, from the simple interjection to 
phrases of some length, with verbal forms, and even a subject. 


Such are 


a. Interjections : 

°Q, a, atal, φεῦ, ἰού, ἰώ oh, ah, alas, ha, ho, ete. 

b. Exclamations without a verb: 

Δεῦρο this way! here! μηδὲν ἄγαν nothing too far! ἰώ 
μοί μοι δύστηνος ah me unhappy! Leds Σωτὴρ καὶ νίκη Zeus the 
Savior and victory! An. τ. 8, 16. ὦ μιαρὸν ἦθος Kat γυναικὸς 
ὕστερον O vile nature, subject toa woman! 8. an. 746. 

ce. Titles and headings: 

Κύρου ᾿Ανάβασις The Expedition of Cyrus. epi Ποιητικῆς 
On Poetry. “Era ἐπὶ Θήβας Seven against Thebes. 


1<The language of birds is very ancient, and, like other ancient 
modes of speech, very elliptical ; little is said, but much is meant and 
understood.” —WuitE, Nat. Hist. of Selborne, Letter 85. 

*'Tennyson, for example, uses them very freely: ‘‘ Sunset and eve- 
ning star, and one clear call for me.” “ΧΑ plot, a plot, to ruin all!” 
‘*God’s blessing on the day!” ΧΑ week hence, a week hence.” ‘‘ Ah, 
the long delay!” ‘‘I to ery out on pride!” ‘Scorned, to be scorned 
by one that I scorn.” 


492 


493 


UNDEVELOPED AND INCOMPLETE SENTENCES 187 


d. Some words or phrases, introducing a sentence that fol- 
lows, or summing up something that precedes : 


Σημεῖον δέ, or τεκμήριον δέ, and as evidence καὶ TO μέ- 
γιστον and what is most important——. καὶ τοῦτο αὐτὸ τὸ τοῦ 
Ὁμήρου and then as Homer says Ap, 84d. So the fre- 
quent expression καὶ ταῦτα and that too, in which ταῦτα, like 
that, stands for the preceding expression, repeated in this 
abbreviated form, that some new point may be added with 


emphasis. 


Exclamatory Infinitives are more like sentences, sometimes 
having a subject. 

a. In an imperative sense, often to be rendered by an im- 
perative : 

Πρῶτον μὲν τοῦτο παρ᾽ ὑμῖν αὐτοῖς βεβαίως γνῶναι first of all, 
this firm conviction in your own minds! D. 8, 39. δρᾶσαντι 
παθεῖν to him that did τέ (to the guilty) suffering. A. c. 312. 
ois μὴ πελάζειν go not near these. <A. PB. 738. 

b. As a prayer or wish : 

Θεοὶ πολῖται, μή pe δουλείας τυχεῖν my country’s gods, not 
slavery, not that fate forme! A. 5. 289. 

6. Of surprise, indignation, or other emotion : 

Ἐμὲ παθεῖν τάδε, φεῦ 7 to suffer this! Ha! A. π΄. 840. ὦ 
δυστάλαινα, τοιάδ᾽ ἄνδρα χρήσιμον φωνεῖν ah, wretched me! for 
a good man to speak so! 8... at. 410, τοιουτονὶ τρέφειν κύνα to 
keep a dog like that! Ar. ν. 835. 


Sentences are often incomplete; any part that is clearly im- 
plied may be left unexpressed. 

a. In many sentences the subject is not expressed, because 
easily understood, or indefinite, or contained in the verb : 


Paci they say. καὶ εἶχεν οὕτως and so it was. AN. m1. 1, 31, 
μάχης δεῖ there’s need of a fight. An. τι. 3, 5. 

Here belong impersonal verbs: det there is need, χρή opor- 
tet, προσήκει it behooves, μέλει it ts a care, ete. 


494 


495 


188 SIMPLE SENTENCES 


b. The verb is often omitted, especially ἐστι, εἰσι and other 
common verbs that are suggested by the context : 

Σπονδαὶ μὲν μένουσιν, ἀπιοῦσι δὲ ἢ προϊοῦσι πόλεμος a truce if 
we stay, if we leave or advance, war, ΑΝ. τι. 1, 38, μή μοι μῦ- 
ρίους ξένους no ten thousand mercenaries, please. 1). 4, 19. 


c. Sometimes an adverb or adverbial phrase stands for a 
whole sentence, as in the common answers vai yes, μάλιστα 
certainly, οὔ no, οὐ δῆτα of course not, no indeed, πάνυ μὲν οὖν 
assuredly, vy Δία yes, by Zeus, μὰ τοὺς θεούς by heaven, no, 
καλῶς very well, εὖ ye bravo! 

These and the like may be called abbreviated sentences. 


d. Sometimes it is not clear, nor of any importance, whether 
an expression is incomplete through omission, or belongs un- 
der 490, as a more primitive form : 


Οἰκτρὰ μὲν νόστοις aida piteous the cry at the return! S. Ἑ, 
193. So also the examples under Ὁ. 


Thus far (451-493) sentences have been treated rather as 
wholes, the treatment centering in the verb as the backbone 
of the sentence. In the following sections (495-599) the sepa- 
rate parts of the simple sentence will be treated in this order: 
Verbs, Nouns (the Cases), Adjectives, Special Forms of Predi- 
cation, The Article, Pronouns, Infinitives, Participles, Verbals, 
Prepositions. Of the verb, since the modes and tenses in 
simple sentences have already been explained, only Agree- 
ment and Voice remain to be described. 


VERBS: AGREEMENT AND VOICE 


A finite verb agrees with its subject in number and 
person, as in English and Latin. 


496 But a neuter plural subject commonly takes a singu- 


lar verb: 


ΒΞ ES 
SO Rc οὐ σ᾽ 


497 


VERBS: AGREEMENT AND VOICE 189 


Πολλὰ τῶν ὑποζυγίων ἀπώλετο many of the 
baggage-animats died. Ay. 1. 5, 5. 

But also: ἅπαντα ἦσαν εὐώδη all were sweet-smelling. 
Ay. 1.5, 1. ἦσαν ταῦτα δύο τείχη these were two walls. AN. τ. 
4, 4. 

A dual subject may take a plural verb : 


᾿Αδελφὼ δύο μόρον κοινὸν κατειργάσαντο our two brothers 
wrought their common death. 8. an. 57, 


The agreement often follows the sense instead of form; but 
sometimes it follows the form instead of sense : 


ἃ. Τὸ πλῆθος οἴονται the multitude suppose. T. 1. 30, 
(Agreement with a collective subject.) 


b. Βασιλεὺς καὶ of σὺν αὐτῷ εἰσπίπτει the king with his 


followers breaks in. Avy. 1. 10, 1. (The king is thought of as 


the central figure.) 

6. ΓἜπεμψέ pe ᾿Αριαῖος καὶ ᾿Αρτάοζος Ariaios and Artao- 
208 sent me. ΑΝ. τι. 4, 16. (Agreement with the nearer noun 
only.) 

ἃ, Τὸ μέσον τῶν τειχῶν ἦσαν στάδιοι τρεῖς the space be- 
tween the walls was three stades. Avy. τ. 4, 4. (Agreement with 
a predicate noun.) 


The Active and Passive voices have the same force 
as in English. 


a. Some active verbs are used as passives of other 
verbs : 


ἀποκτείνω kill, ἀποθνήσκω (die) am 
killed, 
ἐκβάλλω cast out, exile, ἐκπΐπτω (fall out), φεύγω 


( flee) am exiled, 
εὖ OF κακῶς ποιῶ do good εὖ, κακῶς πάσχω am well 
or 21 to, or badly treated, 


190 SIMPLE SENTENCES 
διατίθημι dispose, bring to διάκειμαι am disposed, am 
a certain disposition, in (this or that) disposi- 
tion. 


500 The Middle voice expresses an action of the subject 
a. On himself, as direct object (Direct Middle) : 


παύω make stop, παύομαι stop myself, cease, 

paiva show, φαίνομαι show myself, appear, 

ἵστημι set up (cp. 368), ἵσταμαι place myself, 

πείθω persuade, πείθομαι persuade myself, be- 
lieve, 

διδάσκω teach, διδάσκομαι teach myself, learn, 

antw fasten, ἅπτομαί twos fasten myself to 
something, touch, 

ἔχω hold, ἔχομαί τινος hold myself to, 


cling to, am next to. 


b. Lor, to, with reference to himself (Lndirect Mid- 
dle) : 


ἄρχω am first, ἄρχομαι begin for myself, be- 
gin my task, 

ποιῶ make, ποιοῦμαί τινα φίλον make one 
my friend, 

ἄγω lead, ἄγομαι γυναῖκα take to myself 
a wife, marry, 

βουλεύω plan, βουλεύομαι plan for myself, 
deliberate, 

συμβουλεύω advise, συμβουλεύομαι seek advice, 

aipéw take, seize, αἱροῦμαι take for myself, 
choose, 


φυλάττω watch, guard, φυλάττομαι am on my guard. 


NOUNS: THE CASES 191 


6. From himself, from his own powers or means 
(Subjective Middle, sometimes very like the active) : 
ποιῶ πόλεμον CHUSE WAT, ποιοῦμαι πόλεμον Carry 

On War, 
πολιτεύομαι act as a citizen, take part in government, 
ἀποφαίνομαι γνώμην show forth my opinion, 
ἐπαγγέλλομαΐί τι offer or promise something (announce 

From myself ). 

τοὺς ἀγράφους νόμους οὐχ οἱ ἄνθρωποι ἔθεντο ἀλλὰ 
θεοὶ τοῖς ἀνθρώποις ἔθεσαν the unwritten laws not men 
established of themselves, but gods for men. (See 
M. rv, 4, 19.) 

d. The Indirect and the Subjective middle can not always 
be distinguished ; both are sometimes causative : 


μεταπέμπομαί twa send for, have one sent to me, 

διδάσκομαι τὸν παῖδα have the boy taught, 

δικάζομαι get judgment rendered, bring suit, 

ypapopat τινα get an indictment (γραφή) written against one, 
indict. 

Deponent verbs are properly middle, in the indirect or sub- 

jective sense, and the active was not thought necessary. 

The aorist passive was originally not passive, but merely 
intransitive, and in some verbs this intransitive sense con- 
tinued in common use: ἐδόκει por ταύτῃ πειρᾶσθαι σωθῆναι it 
seemed to me best to try to attain safety in this way. 1. 12, 15. 
So always ἐχάρην rejoiced, from χαίρω. 


NOUNS: THE CASES 


A noun (or pronoun) in the same case with another, 
and denoting the same person or thing, is an apposi- 
tive if added directly, a predicate if added by means 


ὅ08 


ὅ04 


505 


192 SIMPLE SENTENCES 


of a verb. Both appositive and predicate noun may 
be in any case, according to the construction of the 
primary noun: 

Avddpar δὲ παῖς ᾿Αχιλλέως, Νεοπτόλεμος L 
am called the son of Achilles, Neoptolemos. 8. ». 240 1. 
(Here Neoptolemos is an appositive to παῖς, which is 
a predicate noun, agreeing with the understood sub- 
ject of αὐδῶμαι. For special idioms of predication in 
Greek see 545-548. ) 


For the cases with prepositions, alone or in composition, 
see 597-599. 
The Nominative 


The Nominative case of nouns (or pronouns) is nsed 
(1) As the subject of a finite ue 
(2) In address, for the vocative 
Ζεὺς βασιλεύει Zeus is king. ὦ φίλος εἰπέ O 
friend, speak. Δ. vs. 562. 
A Nominative may stand as appositive to a sentence : 
Νηλεῶς ὧδ᾽ ἐρρύθισμαι, Ζηνὶ δυσκλεὴς θέα thus pitilessly am I 
chastised, a sight of evil fame for Zeus. A. PB. 907. 


The Genitive 


The Genitive is a blend of two cases, once distinct. 
These are 

(1) The Genitive proper (like the Latin geni- 
tive), 

(2) The old Ablative, or om case. 

In great part the two sets of uses are fairly dis- 
tinct; but some uses are puzzling, and must be 
learned mainly through reading. 


506 


THE GENITIVE 193 


(In Latin the genitive remained pure, and the ablative 
was blended with the instrumental and the locative. See 


528.) 


The Genitive proper may depend on a noun or pro- 
noun directly (Adnominal Genitive). 'The relation 
intended is gathered only from the nature of the 
words and from the context ; some combinations oc- 
cur so often that they are named, but a host of others 
are too various and elusive to name: ’ 

a. H βασιλέως δύναμις the king’s power (Pos- 
sessive Genitive). ἡ ἔφοδος τοῦ στρατεύματος 
the approach of the army (Subjective Genitive). μηδε- 
pia σωτηρίᾶς ἐλπίς no hope of safety (Objective 
Genitive). τριῶν ἡμερῶν oddv a three days’ journey 
(Genitive of Measure). τῶν μῦρίων ἐλπίδων pia 


one hope in ten thousand (Genitive of the Whole). 


b. Πλῆθος ἀνθρώπων a multitude of men. σιγῇ 
φίλων with silence toward your friends.  ¥. m. 587. 
ἐν μέσῳ ἡμῶν καὶ βασιλέως between us and the 
king. Ἀν. τι. 3, 8. θεῶν πόλεμος war from the gods. 
Αν. 15,7 ἡ τῶν κρεισσόνων δουλεία servitude 
to the stronger. 1.1.8 ἅμαξαι πετρῶν wagon-loads 
of stones, Ax. τυ. 7,10. γραφὴ ἀσεβείας indictment 
jor impiety. ἀδικημάτων ὀργή anger at wrong- 
doing. U. 12,20. δι αἰσχύνην καὶ ἀλλήλων καὶ 


1 Compare, from Shakspere, night’s predominance, ruin’s entrance, in 
his kingdom’s defense, in his country’s wreck, an hour's delay, my heart’s 
core, the Norway’s king, a summer’s cloud, heaven’s breath, this night's 
business, each day’s life, life’s feast, my scepter’s awe; from J. R. Lowell, 
Tethe’s ooze, battle-odes. whose lines, the letter’s sheath, at life’s dear 
peril. 

13 


507 


194 SIMPLE SENTENCES 


Κύρου for shame both before one another and before 
Cyrus, An. 11. 1, 10. 


The word on which the adnominal genitive depends 

a. May be omitted : 

His διδασκάλου toa teacher’s (house), to school. ἐν Αιδου 
in Hades’ (abode, realm), in the other world. ἐν Διονύσου in 
(the precinct) of Dionysos. τῆς γῆς ἔτεμον they ravaged 
(some) of the land. Τ. τ. 30. See also 510 a. 

b. May be represented by the article only : 

Kis τὴν ἑαυτῶν to their own land. 


The genitive often stands with a neuter article: 

Ta τῆς πόλεως the (affairs, interests) of the state. τὰ μὲν 
Κύρου οὕτως ἔχει πρὸς ἡμᾶς ὥσπερ τὰ ἡμέτερα πρὸς ἐκεῖνον Cyrus’s 
relation to us is just like ours to him. AN. τ. ὃ, 9% τὰ τῶν 
θεῶν the (ordering) of the gods. τὸ τῆς τύχης the (action) of 
fortune. τὸ τῶν πνευμάτων the matter of the winds, or simply 
the winds. τὰ τῆς ψυχῆς the soul. 

ce. May be a neuter pronoun or adjective, made a noun of 
degree or quantity : 

His τοσοῦτον κακίᾶς ἦλθεν he came to such a pitch of 
baseness. 1.. 12, 67. εἰς τοῦτο ἀφῖχθε pwplas ἢ Tapavolas 
you have reached this hight of folly or of madness. UD. 9, 54. 
ἐπὶ μέγα δυνάμεως to a great degree of power. 

d. May be an adverb of place, degree, or condition : 

Ποῦ γῆς; where on earth, ubi terrarum? ποῦ γνώμης ποτ᾽ 
εἶ; where in thought are you? 8. an. 42. οἷ ἀσελγείας to what 
pitch of profligacy. D. 4,9. πρόσω τοῦ ποταμοῦ far into the 
river. AN. Iv. 8, 28. πημονῆς ἅλις enough of woe. So with εὖ, 
κακῶς, ὧδε, ws, va. Cp. also 518 b. 

e. May be, really or apparently, a superlative adjective or 
adverb (Genitive of the Whole) : 

Ὦ φίλτατ᾽ ἀνδρῶν dearest of men. 8. π. 38, μάλιστα τῶν 
Ἑλλήνων most among the Greeks. An. τ. 6 
tov most unsparingly of all. AN. τ. 9, 13. 


, 5. ἀφειδέστατα πάν- 


ὅ08 


ὅ09 


THE GENITIVE 195 


A Genitive may be part of the predicate, brought 
into dependence on a noun or pronoun by means of 
the verb (Predicate Genitive) : 

Ἢν οὗτος τῶν ἀμφὶ Μίλητον στρατευομένων 
this man was one of those in military service about 
Miletos, Ax. τ 3, ὃ. τοιούτων ἐστὲ προγόνων of 
such ancestors are you. Ay. πι. 3, 13. ἣν ἐτῶν ὡς 
τριάκοντα he was about thirty years οἷα, Avy. τι. 6, 20. 
οὐ τῶν νικώντων ἐστὶ τὰ ὅπλα παραδιδόναι Jiv- 
ing up their arms is not the victors’ part. Ax. u. 1, 9. 

a. In the above the verb connects the genitive 
with the subject ; other verbs may connect a genitive 
with the object: 

Νομίζει καὶ ὑμᾶς ἑαυτοῦ εἶναι he thinks you 
too are his (captives). Ay. τι. 1, 11. τῆς ἡμετέρᾶς 
ἀμελείᾶς ἂν τις θείη δικαίως one would justly put 
it down to our neglect. Ὁ. 1, 1.0. ποίᾶς πάτρᾶς ἂν ἢ 
γένους ὑμᾶς ποτε τύχοιμ᾽ ἂν εἰπών; pray, of What 


land or lineage should I rightly call you? 8. ν. 222. 


The From Genitive (A dlatival) is used with verbs to 
denote 

a. Separation, source, and the like; the verb often 
contains a preposition that would by itself take a 
from genitive, as ἀπό, ἐξ, παρά, πρό: 

Ἐνταῦθα διέσχον ἀλλήλων there they drew 
apart from each other, Δν. τ. 10,4. ἐψιλοῦτο ὁ λό- 
hos τῶν ἱππέων the hill was left bare of the horse. 
men. Ax. τ. 10,13. ἡ ὄψις ἠλέκτρου οὐδὲν διέφερε 
their appearance was not a whit different from amber. 


196 SIMPLE SENTENCES 


Ax. 1. 3,15. ἀπηλλαγμένοι τούτων TOV πόνων 
having got rid of these labors, Ay. w. 3,2. τεύξεσθε 
Kipov you will obtain it from Cyrus. Ἀν. τ. 4, 15. 
δεῖται αὐτοῦ μὴ καταλῦσαι he asks of him not to 
come to terms, Ayn. 1,10. ἥδομαι. ἀκούων σοῦ 
φρονίμους λόγους L am delighted at hearing from 
you words of sense. Ax. τι. 5,16. οὐδεὶς ἡμάρτανεν 
τοῦ ἀνδρός no one missed (went wide of) his 
man. An. ur. 4,15. ἀμπλάκω τοῦ σοῦ μόρου; am 
7 to fail of thy fate? 8. ax. 554. ἄροτον γῆς av- 
ἱέναι to send up fruitage from the earth. 8. or. 270. 
βάθρων ἵστασθε rise from the steps. 8. or. 142. 


b. That to which something is superior or inferior, 
with verbs implying comparison (Genztive of Com- 
parison; cp. 517): 

Τὸ περιεῖναι τῶν φίλων the surpassing his 
friends, Δκ. τ. 9,34. περιγενέσθαι τῆς βασιλέως 
δυνάμεως to get the better of the king's force. Ax. 
u.1,13 τούτου οὐχ ἡττησόμεθα we shall not be 
outdone by him. Av. u. ὃ, 38. τούτων ἐπλεονεκτεῖτε YOU 
had more than they. Ay. τι. 1, 87. 

So with προέχω, προέστηκα, ὑπερέχω, λείπομαι, νϊκῶμαι, etc. 

6. Cause, with some verbs of emotion (cp. also 
511 ο): 

Τῆς ἐλευθερίᾶς ὑμᾶς εὐδαιμονίζω L con- 
gratulate you on your freedom. Δν. τ. ἴ, 8. μὴ αὐτὸν 
oe φροντίσαι θανάτου; do you suppose he was 
anxious about death ? — Av. 28 ἃ. 

So too in exclamations, without a verb, and with 
adjectives : 


510 


THE GENITIVE 197 


Οἴμοι ταλαίνης ah, unhappy! 8. ax. 82. φεῦ τῆς 
avotas alas 70» thy Jolly / S. E. 920. θαυμάσιαι τοῦ 
κάλλους καὶ μεγέθους wonderful for beauty and size. 
AN, 11. 8, 15. 

d. The agent (source of the action), in poetry, with some 
passive participles and verbals : 

Κείνης διδακτά taught by her. 8. 2. 844. φωτὸς ἠπατημένη 
deceived by a husband. 8. at. 807, 


The Genitive is used as object with many verbs not easy to 
classify : 
a. Verbs of sharing: 


᾿Αγαθοῦ μὲν οὐδενὸς μετέσχεν ἄλλων δὲ πολλῶν he took 
part in no good thing, but in many of another sort. Τ,. 12, 48, 
δόξης petados impart your thought. KE. rr. 1030. 

So with κοινωνῶ, μετέχω, μεταλαμβάνω, and Aayxavw when it 
means get by lot a share in. 

Some examples may belong either here or under 507 a. 


Ὁ. Some verbs meaning fowch, take hold of, begin, try: 


᾿Αντιλάβεσθε τῶν πραγμάτων lay hold of the business. 1). 1, 20. 
τοῦ λόγου ἤρχετο ὧδε he began his speech thus. AN. 1. 2, 7. 
ἔλαβον τῆς ζώνης τὸν Ὀρόντην they took hold of Orontes by 
his girdle. An. τ. 6,10. Θετταλίᾶς ἐπέβη he set foot on 
Thessaly. D.1,12 ἐχόμενοι τούτων yeppoddpa next to 
these (cp. 500 a), troops with wicker shields. An. 1.8, 9. πει- 
ρώμενοι ταύτης τῆς τάξεως making trial of this order. 
AN, 111. 2, 38. 

So with ἅπτομαι, θιγγάνω, ψαύω, ἀντέχομαι. 

0. Verbs meaning rule or lead (cp. 509 Ὁ) : 

Τῶν Ἑλλήνων ἦρξαν ἑκόντων they ruled the Greeks with 
their consent. D. 8, 24. τοῦ δεξιοῦ κέρως ἡγεῖσθαι to lead 
the right wing. Ay. τ. 7,1. (But ἡγοῦμαι also takes the dative: 
τοῖς ἄλλοις ἡγεῖτο he led the rest. An. τι. 2, 8.) 


ἃ. Verbs meaning aim, claim, reach, attain: 


511 


198 SIMPLE SENTENCES 


Μεγάλων ψυχῶν teis οὐκ ἂν ἁμάρτοις aiming at great souls, 
you would not miss. S. at. 154. ἐφιέμενος τῆς ἀρχῆς longing for 
the rule. T. 1. 128. οὐκ ἀντιποιούμεθα βασιλεῖ τῆς ἀρχῆς 
we do not dispute with the king for the sovereignty. AN. τι. 8, 23. 
ἐξικνεῖσθαι τῶν σφενδονητῶν to reach the slingers. An, τι, 3, 7. 
τιμῆς τυγχάνειν to obtain honor. AN. 1. 9, 29. 

So with στοχάζομαι, ὀρέγομαι, ψαύω. 

6. Verbs meaning ἐαϑδέο, smell, enjoy : 

Βούλεται καὶ σὲ τούτων γεύσασθαι he wishes You also to 
taste these. An. 1. 9, 26. τί yap ἄλλ᾽ ἂν ἀπολαύσαιμι τοῦ 
μαθήματος; why, what other good of learning should I enjoy? 
AR. N. 1281. 

So with ὀσφραίνομαι, ὀνίνημι, τέρπομαι, εὐωχοῦμαι. 

The Genitive is used as object with many verbs that 
denote an action of the senses or of the mind; several 
of these admit the accusative. 

a. ᾿Ακούω hear, αἰσθάνομαι perceive, and a few 
others of like meaning : 

Θορύβου ἤκουσε he heard a noise. Ax. τ. 8,16. But 
note ἤκουσε Τισσαφέρνους τὸν Κύρου στόλον he heard 
of Cyrus's equipment from 1: Ακ. τ 9, ὅ. αἰσθάνομαι 
likewise takes the gen. or acc. ἀλλήλων ξυνΐεσαν they 
understood one another. TT. τ. 3,20. τὸ τῶν τοιού- 
των ἐθέλειν ἀκροᾶσθαι the willingness to listen to 
such men. D. 9, 55. 

b. Verbs meaning remember, forget : 

Μιμνήσκεις κακῶν thou remindest me of sorrows. 
EK. au, 1045. ἄλλου λόγου μέμνη σθε remember some 
other word. A. vs. 522 μὴ ἐπιλαθώμεθα τῆς OF 
Kade ὁ δ᾽ οῦ let us not forget the way home. An. τι. 2, 2%. 

These verbs may also take the accusative ; a neu- 


512 


513 


THE GENITIVE ΤῸ 


ter pronoun as object is always accusative: τὸν Ev- 
φραῖον μεμνημένοι remembering Luphraios. Ὁ. 9, 61. 

6. Verbs meaning care for, neglect, spare, desire: 

Φρονήσεως καὶ ἀληθείας καὶ τῆς ψῦύχῆς 
οὐκ ἐπιμελεῖ οὐδὲ φροντίζεις for intelligence 
and truth and the soul you take no care or thought. 
Ap. 39 6. ἐμοὶ δ᾽ ἔλασσον Ζηνὸς ἢ μηδὲν μέλει but 
L care less than naught for Zeus. Δ. vs. 910. χρημά- 
των ἐπιθυμεῖ he is eager for wealth. Ay. πι. 2, 39. 

Similarly with μεταμέλει por poenitet me, ἐντρέπομαι regard, 
ἀμελῶ neglect, ὀλιγωρῶ think lightly of, φείδομαι spare, ἀφειδῶ 
am unsparing, ἐρῶ love, πεινῶ hunger for. 


The Genitive is used with verbs and adjectives of 
plenty and want: 

Διφθέρας ἐπίμπλασαν χόρτου κούφου they 
would fill skins with hay. ἂν. τ. ὅ, 106. τῶν ἐπιτη- 
δείων οὐκ ἀπορήσομεν we shall not lack pro- 
visions. AN. τι. 3, 11. πλήρεις ὕδατος full of water. 
AN. 11. 8, 13. χρημάτων εὐπόρει he had plenty of money. 
D. 18, 235. μάχης Set there is need of a fight. Ax. τι. ὃ, 5. 


The Genitive may denote price or value: 

Πόσου διδάσκει ; for how much does he teach ? 
Ap. 300. τῶν πόνων πωλοῦσιν ἡμῖν πάντα Taya? 
ot θεοί for toil alone the gods sell all good things. 
Eric. μικρὰ μέτρα πολλοῦ apuplov small measures 
Jor a large sum. Ay. m. 2, 91. 


514 ‘The Genitive with verbs of accusing, convicting, ac- 


quitting denotes the charge. 


515 


516 


200 SIMPLE SENTENCES 


Thus κλοπῆς αἰτιῶμαι accuse (φεύγω am accused) 
of theft, ἀσεβείας διώκω prosecute (γράφομαι indict, 
εἰσάγω bring to trial, ἀποπέφυγα am acquitted) for 
emprety. 

a. But with κατηγορῶ accuse, καταγιγνώσκω adjudge against, 
καταψηφίζομαι vote against, and some others, the genitive of 
the person is governed by the xara. 

Tipo estimate a penalty takes the genitive of value; the 
active is used of the court, the middle (in a causative sense, 
get it estimated) of the accuser or accused. 

᾿Αλλὰ δὴ φυγῆς τ᾽μήσωμαι; ἴσως yap ἄν por τούτου τι μή- 
σαιτε but shall I then put (the penalty) at exile? For perhaps 
you (the jury) would put tt at that amount. Av. 87 ο. 


The Genitive may denote the time or space within 
which something occurs, or to which it belongs: 

Ov μαχεῖται δέκα ἡμερῶν he will not fight with- 
in ten days. Ay.1.7,18 ἀεὶ τοῦ καθήκοντος 
χρόνου γίγνεσθαι occur always within the appro- 
priate time. D. 4,35. ἑπτακαίδεκα σταθμῶν τῶν 
ἐγγυτάτω ἐκ τῆς χώρᾶς οὐδὲν εἴχομεν λαμβάνειν with- 
in the siateen nearest stages we could get nothing from 
the country. ΑΝ. τι. 2, 11. | 

In prose only a few words of time, and still fewer of place, are 
freely so used, especially χρόνου, ἡμέρας by day, νυκτός by night, 
ἑσπέρας in the evening, χειμῶνος in winter, θέρους in summer. 

Here also belong some adverbs and adverbial phrases of 
place in the genitive, as αὐτοῦ on the spot, ποῦ where? οὗ 
where (rel.): οὐκ ἔφασαν ἰέναι tod πρόσω they refused to go 


9 


forward. AN. τ. 8, 1. 


The Genitive is used with many adjectives. 


a. Adjectives of like meaning with the above verbs (509- 
514) ; 


517 


518 


THE GENITIVE 201 


Such are ἕτερος different, ὀρφανός bereft, ἐλεύθερος free, and 
in poetry various compounds of a(v)- negative, taking a from 
genitive ; 

Also ἐπήκοος listening, ὑπήκοος obedient, μνήμων mindful, 
ἐπιμελής careful, ἀφειδής UNsparing, αἴτιος causing, ἐγκρατής hav- 
ing control, ἄξιος worthy, ἀνάξιος unworthy (therefore ἀξιῶ 
think worthy). 


Ὁ. Adjectives of various meanings, best learned from read- 
ing : : 
Ἐπιστήμων τῶν ἀμφὶ τάξεις skilled in tactics. Avy. u.1, 7. 
ἱερὸς τῆς ᾿Αρτέμιδος sacred to Artemis. An. v. 8, 18. ἄπειροι 
αὐτῶν without experience of them. AN. ul. 2, 16. 

With comparative adjectives and adverbs the From 
Genitive denotes the starting-point of comparison 
(Genitive of Comparison ; see 509) : 

Πέρσᾶς ἑαυτοῦ βελτίους Persians superior to 
himself. Ax. 2,1. od πλέον εἴκοσι σταδίων not 
more than twenty stades, An. m. 2, 34. οὑτοσὶ coda- 
Tepos ἐμοῦ this man here is wiser than 7. Av. 31 ο. 

So with any adjectives that imply comparison : 

Τῇ ὑστεραίᾳ τῆς μάχης on the day after the 
battle. πολλαπλασίους ὑμῶν αὐτῶν ἐνϊκᾶτε 
you defeated many times your own number, Αν. m1. 
2, 14. 

The Genitive is used with 

a. Adverbs derived from adjectives or verbs that 
take a genitive: 

᾿Αξίως τῆς πόλεως in a manner worthy of the state. 

Ὁ. Adverbs of place, time, separation, state : 


Πόρρω τοῦ βίου θανάτου δὲ ἐγγύς far on in lifeand near death. 
Ap. 88 c. ἔξω τοῦ δεινοῦ out of danger. AN. τι. 6,12. ὀψὲ τῆς 


519 


520 


202 SIMPLE SENTENCES 


ἡμέρας late in the day. χωρὶς τῶν ἄλλων apart from the rest. 
λάθρᾷ τῶν στρατιωτῶν Without the knowledge of the soldiers. 
ΑΝ. 1. 8, 8. 

So with ἔσω, ἐντός, ἐκτός, μεταξύ, πλησίον, πρόσθεν, ἔμπροσθεν, 
ὄπισθεν, ἀμφοτέρωθεν, ἔνθεν, πέρα(ν), πῶς, εὖ, and others. Cp. 
also 507 d. 

6. "Avev, πλήν, ἄχρι, μέχρι, evexa—adverbs that 
have become virtually prepositions (cp. 599). 


For the Genitive Absolute see 589, 590. 


The Dative 


Three cases, once distinct, are blended in the Greek 
Dative. These are 


(1) The true Dative, the 70 or For case, 

(2) The Instrumental (or Sociative), the Weth or 
By case, 

(3) The Locative, the A¢ or Jn case. 

The English prepositions ¢o and for, with and by, αὐ and 
in, cover fairly the three sets of uses; but there are many 
differences of idiom. 

The dative is used mostly with verbs and adjectives, but 
also with nouns, adverbs, and prepositions. 


The 70 Dative is used with verbs to denote the indi- 
rect object : 

Ταῦτα ἀπαγγελῶ βασιλεῖ this 7 will report 
to the king. Avy. π. 8,24. ταῦτα τοῖς φίλοις διεδί- 
δου these he used to distribute to his friends. Ax. τ. 
9,22. ἀλλὰ φιλοσόφῳ ἔοικας why, you seem like 
a philosopher. Ax. τι. 1, 18. 

a. Many Greek verbs take the dative though the 


521 


THE DATIVE 2038 


corresponding English verb takes a direct object, or 
requires some other preposition than fo: 

᾿Επίστευον αὐτῷ they trusted him. Avy.1. 3,3. πεί- 
σομαι μᾶλλον τῷ θεῷ ἢ ὑμῖν L shall obey the god 
rather than you. Δν. ὃ9 ἃ. Κύρῳ πειθαρχεῖν to be 
obedient to Cyrus, Δκ. τ. 9, 11. ἐμοὶ ὀργίζονται they 
get angry αὐ me. Δν. 38 6. τῷ θεῷ βοηθῶν aiding the 
god, ΔΑν. 38 Ὁ. τοῖς ᾿Αθηναίοις παρήνει he used to ad- 
vise the Athenians. 1.1.93. ἕπεσθε τῷ ἡγουμένῳ 
follow your leader, Ax. τι. 2, 4. 

So with ἐπιτιμῶ, μέμφομαι, ἐγκαλῶ blame, φθονῶ envy, ὀνειδίζω 
reproach, tipwp avenge one, ὑπισχνοῦμαι promise, and many 
others. Some verbs (as μέμφομαι, ὀνειδίζω, ἐπιτιμῶ) take some- 
times the accusative and sometimes the dative. 


b. Here belong some semi-impersonal verbs, the subject of 
which is not an acting person, but a thing or an act: 

Ἐμοὶ μελήσει tt shall be my care. AN. τ. 4, 16. μεταμελήσει 
αὐτῷ he will repent (it will repent him). UL. 16,2. ἐδόκει ἤδη 
πορεύεσθαι αὐτῷ ἄνω it now seemed best to him to march up 
(from the coast). ΑΝ. 1. 2, 1. τῇ ἡλικίᾳ ἵτρτε it was suitable 
to his age. ΑΝ. τ. 9, 6. 

So also ἔξεστι it is possible, det μοί twos 1 need something, 
μέτεστί μοί twos I have a share in something, etc. 


The Zo Dative may denote the person to whom 
(rarely the place to which) with verbs of motion : 

Τοῦτόν σοι ἔπεμψε this (wine) he sent to you. 
Ay. 19,25. Σαμίοις ἦλθε he went to the Samians. 
T. 1.13. Ἰλίῳ Πάρις ἠγάγετ᾽ “EXévav Paris brought 
Flelen to Ilion. ¥. axv. 103. πόνος πόνῳ πόνον ῳ ἔ- 
ρει tod to toil brings toil. 8. a1. 866. 


Much oftener these verbs take πρός with the accusative 
in this sense. 


522 


523 


204 SIMPLE SENTENCES 


The Zo Dative is used also with some adjectives, ad- 
verbs, and nouns, more or less like the above verbs 
in meaning : 

Tots πολεμίοις ἐναντίους opposed to the enemy. Ax. 
πι. 2,10. τὰ Kpea ἦν παραπλήσια τοῖς ἐλαφεί- 
οις the meat was like venison. Ay. τ. ὅ, 3. θάνατον 
πᾶσι κοινὸν εἶναι καὶ ἀναγκαῖον ἀνθρώποις 
that death is common to all and inevitable for man. 
ΑΝ. τπ. 1, 43. ἀλλά μοι δῆλόν ἐστι τοῦτο but this is 
clear to me. Av. 41a ἡ ἐμὴ τῷ θεῷ ὑπηρεσίᾶ 
my service to the god. Avr. 30a σφίσιν αὐτοῖς 
μόνον ἐπιτηδείως advantageously to themselves 
only, Ὅτ. 19,3. πυρὸς βροτοῖς δοτῆρ᾽ ὁρᾷς thou 
seest the giver of fire to mortals. Δ. vp. 639. | 

So with εὔνους friendly, ἐχθρός unfriendly, πολέμιος hostile, 
φανερός plain, ἄδηλος uncertain, ἀπρεπής unbecoming, and many 
others. 

The “or Dative is used (with verbs, adjectives, ad- 
verbs, and nouns) to denote the person or thing in- 
terested or affected : 

Ta ἄκρα ἡμῖν προκαταλαμβάνειν to seize the 
hights beforehand for us. Av. τ. 8, 16, ταῦτα καὶ νεω- 
τέρῳ καὶ πρεσβυτέρῳ ποιήσω this I shall do 
for both younger and older, Av. 80 ἃ. φεύγειν αὐτοῖς 
ἀσφαλέστερον ἢ ἡμῖν fleeing is safer for them 
than for us. An. πι. 3,19. χαλεπὸν ἣν ἐμοί it was 
difficult for me. 1.1.22. τὸ yap ἔρυμα τῷ OT parTo- 
πέδῳ οὐκ ἂν ἐτειχίσαντο else they would not have 
built the wall for their camp. 1.1.11. τοῖς ἀσθε- 
νέσι τροφῆς ἕνεκα for the sake of support for the 


524 


THE DATIVE 205 


weak, 1.1.5. ov σύ μοι τῶνδ᾽ aitia; are not you 
the cause of this for me? 8. x. 295. μέγιστον κόσ μον 
ἀνδρί the greatest ornament for ὦ man. Ax. ι. 9, 38. 
σϊτηρέσιον μόνον TH δυνάμει ration-money alone 
Jor the force. Ὁ. 4, 28. 


a. Greek often expresses a for relation where Eng- 
lish puts the matter in some other way : 

᾿Ανάβηθί μοι καὶ ματύρησον come up, please (for 
me), and testify. 1. 16,8 σπονδαὶ μὲν μένουσι, 
ἀπιοῦσι δὲ ἢ προϊοῦσι πόλεμος ὦ truce if we 
stay here, but war if we withdraw or advance (for us 
remaining, for us withdrawing, etc.). An. π΄ 1, 23. 
σφῷν μὲν ἐντολὴ Διὸς ἔχει τέλος for you (80 far as 
you are concerned) the command of Zeus hath con- 
summation. Α. ν»Β. 15. συνελόντι δ᾽ ἁπλῶς to put 
it simply (for one putting it simply). Ῥ. 4, 1. τιμῆς 
ἄξιος TH πόλει Worthy of honor from (with reference 
to) the state. M.1. 2,62. οὕτως atadaimwpos τοῖς 
πολλοῖς ἡ ζήτησις τῆς ἀληθείᾷς so lightly do the 
multitude take (so unlaborious for the multitude is) 
the search for truth. T.1. 30. οὔτοι τι σοὶ ζῶ δοῦλος 
ἀλλὰ Λοξίᾳ in no degree as servant to you do 7 live, 
but to Lowias. 8. or. 410. 


The Hor Dative also denotes 
a. The Possessor, with εἰμι, γίγνομαι, and the like: 
Ἐνταῦθα Κύρῳ βασίλεια ἢν there Cyrus had a 
palace, Δν. τ. 3,1. ἐγένετο αὐτοῖς ἡ ἰδία παρα- 
σκευὴ μείζων their individual preparation became 
greater (the preparation became greater for them). 


525 


206 SIMPLE SENTENCES 


T. 1.19 ὄνομα αὐτῇ Κορσώτη its (the city’s) name 
was Korsote. Av.1.5,4. ἀνάγκη ἐστί μοι ut 8 neéces- 
sary for me. 

b. The Agent, regularly with the verbal in -réos 
(596), often with the perfect and pluperfect pas- 
sive: | 

᾿Ὦμοὶ τοῦτο οὐ ποιητέον this must not be done 
by me. Avy. 1.3, 15. πάνθ᾽ ἡμῖν πεποίηται τέ 15 all 
done by us. Av. τ. 8,12. τὰ τούτοις ἐψηφισμένα 
the measures voted by these men. 1,. 12, 30. 


6. The possessor or the agent in these constructions is 
really the person interested or affected, so that in essence 
these cases fall under 523 ; but usually for can not be used in 
translating. 


The With Dative (Sociative) is used, of person or 
thing, with words implying association of any kind 
whatever : 

πολέμει τοῖς Opaki he carried on war with the 
Thracians. Ax.1.1,9% σοφοῖς ὁμιλῶν καὐτὸς ἐκ- 
βήσῃ σοφός by being with wise men you will yourself 
become wise. Mrn. οὐκ ἀντιποιούμεθα βασιλεῖ 
τῆς ἀρχῆς we do not dispute with the king for the 
sovereignty. AN. τι. 3,23. οἴνῳ KEpaaas αὐτήν Min- 
ing τέ (the spring) with wine. Ay. τ. 2,18 ἅμα τῇ 
ἡμέρᾳ at daylight (with the day). Ax. τι. 1,9. ἐκ δια- 
δοχῆς ἀλλήλοις in relays with each other, D. 4, 21. 

a. Note some typical idioms : 

Térrapas ναῦς ἔλαβον αὐτοῖς ἀνδράσι they took four ships 
with the crews (with the men themselves). H.1. 2,12. μὴ 
ἡμᾶς αὐταῖς ταῖς τριήρεσι καταδύσῃ lest he sink us triremes 


526 


THE DATIVE 207 


and all (with the triremes themselves). AN. τ. 8, 17. ὀλίγῳ 
στρατεύματι ov τολμήσει ἐφέπεσθαι with a small army he will 
not dare to follow. An. τι. 2, 12, Λακεδαιμόνιοι ἦλθον πρεσ- 
Beia the Spartans came with an embassy. T. 1.90. ἐν ταὐτῷ 
ye ἦσθα τούτοις you were at least in the same place with these 
men. AN. τη. 1, 27. 


The By or With Dative (/nstrumental) denotes 

a. Cause or means : 

Σχεδίαις διαβαίνοντες crossing with rafts. Ax. 
15,10. akon ἴσμεν we know by hearing. Ὑ. ι. 4. 
ἰσχὺν περιεποιήσαντο χρημάτων TE προσόδῳ Kal 
ἄλλων ἀρχῇ they gained superior strength both by 
access of wealth and by rule over others, 1.1.15. τού- 
τοις ἥσθη Κῦρος with these Cyrus was pleased. Ax. 
1. 9,26. φιλίᾳ μὲν καὶ εὐνοίᾳ ἑπομένους οὐδέποτε 
εἶχεν he never had men who followed him by reason 
of affection and good-will. Ay. τι. 6, 18.. χαλεπῶς φέρω 
Tots παροῦσι πράγμασι Lam troubled at the pres- 
ent situation. An. 1. ὃ, 3. 


b. Manner : 
Κραυγῇ πολλῇ ἐπίαᾶσιν they will come on with 
t t e ; ᾿. ΡΝ 
much shouting. Δικ. τ. 1,4. πολλὰ τῆς Ἑλλάδος τῷ 
παλαιῷ τρόπῳ νέμεται much of Greece is occupied 
in the ancient manner, T.1. 5. πάντες μιᾷ ὁρμῇῃ 
προσεκύνησαν τὸν θεόν all with one impulse wor- 
shiped the god, An. 1. 2, 9. 

Here belong τῇ ἀληθείᾳ in truth, λόγῳ in word, ἔργῳ in 
deed, σπουδῇ earnestly, στγῇ silently; also some common ad- 
verbs, as xowy in common, ida privately, δημοσίᾳ publicly, ταύτῃ 
this way. 


527 


208 SIMPLE SENTENCES 


e. The Measure of Difference, with a comparative, 
superlative, or any word implying comparison : 

᾿Ολέγῳ πλείω a little more. οὐ πολλοῖς ἔτεσιν 
ὕστερον not many years later. T.1 18, κάκιστα δὴ 
μακρῷ κάτειμι most wretchedly by far do 7 go down. 
S, an. 895. τέχνη δ᾽ ἀνάγκης ἀσθενεστέρᾷ μακρῷ Art 
is far weaker than Necessity. A. vp. 580. 


The At or Zn Dative (Locative) denotes 


a. The Place where (in nouns of place), mostly 
poetic : ! 
Adpous δέχεσθαι to receive in their dwellings. 
5. or. 818. ἔτι μέγας οὐρανῷ Ζεύς Zeus 18 still great 
in heaven. 8. π. 174. περιερρεῖτο ὑπὸ τοῦ Μάσκᾶ κύ- 
κλῳ tt was flowed around in a circle (was completely 
surrounded) by the Maskas. Ay. 1.5, 4. 


In prose a few proper names are so used (cp. 228), especially 
names of demes: Μαραθῶνι at Marathon, Μελίτῃ in Melite. 
But generally a preposition precedes: ἐν τῇ oixia in the house. 


Also figuratively, of State or Condition : 

Οὐχ ὕπνῳ γ᾽ εὕδοντα not slumbering in sleep. 
S. or. 65. φροντίδος πλάνοις in the wanderings of 
anxious thought. S. or. 67. ταῖς puyats Eppopeve- 
otepou stronger in their souls, An. m. 1, 42. 

Examples like the last shade naturally into the following. 

b. The Particular, or the special sense, in which 
something is meant (Specifying Dative; sometimes 
possibly instrumental, but we more often use 77) : 

Bowridlav τῇ φωνῇ like a Lototian in pronun- 
ciation. Av. ur. 1,26. ot δοκοῦντες διαφέρειν εἴτε σ᾽ ο- 


THE ACCUSATIVE 209 


pia εἶτ᾿ avopeta εἴτ᾽ ἄλλῃ ἡ UY ἁ η th 
Σ pete ἢ ἡντινιοῦν ἀρετῇ those 


who are thought superior whether in wisdom or in 


528 


529 


bravery or in any other virtue whatever. Av. 35 ἃ. 
ce. The Time when, in nouns of time with a speci- 
fying word, and in names of festivals: 

Τῇ ὑστεραίᾳ on the neat day. μιᾷ νυκτί in one 
night. δεκάτῳ ἔτει ξυνέβησαν they came to terms 
in the tenth year. Ὑ. τ. 108. Παναθηναίοις at the Pan- 
athenava. | | 
The following table shows the relations between the Greek 


and Latin cases and the older case-system. The nominative, 
accusative, and vocative remained distinct in both languages. 


GREEK OLD CASES LATIN 
Se Genitive Genitive 
oo Ablative (from) 
Instrumental (with, | Ablative 
Dative | Bossi (at, in) 
Dative (¢o, for) Dative 


The Accusative 


The Accusative is used mostly with verbs, but also 
with some adjectives and nouns and with certain 


prepositions. 
THe OUTER OBJECT 


The Accusative is used as the Direct (Outer) object 
of a transitive verb: 

Γνῶθι σεαυτόν know thyself. 

a. Many Greek verbs are transitive whose English 
equivalents require a preposition : 

"Apkrov ποτὲ ἐπιφερομένην οὐκ ἔτρεσεν a bear 
that once attacked him he did not shrink from. Ax. τ. 

14 


531 


532 


210 SIMPLE SENTENCES 


9,6. οὐδὲ Δία ξένιον ἠδέσθη he felt no shame even 
before Zeus, protector of the stranger. Ax. τι. 2, 4. 


σιγᾶν τὐχᾶς to keep silent about my fortune A. 
PB. 106. 


So, among many others, αἰσχύνομαι feel shame before, ὄμνυμι 
swear by, λανθάνω escape the notice of (Lat. lateo), εὖ or κακῶς 
moo do good or harm to, φυλάττομαι guard against, ἀμύνομαι 
defend myself against, πλέω τὴν θάλατταν sail over the sea, 
φθάνω get the start of. 


b. Some intransitive verbs become transitive when com- 
pounded with certain prepositions, as διαβαίνω cross, ἀποδι- 
δράσκω run away from. 

c. Many verbs vary, and are used now as transitive, now as 
intransitive. Thus ἀκούω hear and αἰσθάνομαι perceive take 
the accusative and genitive; μέμφομαι blame takes the accusa- 
tive or the dative. Especially in poetry some verbs take the 
accusative that do not in prose. 


A few verbal adjectives and nouns admit a direct object (as 
participles and infinitives of transitive verbs do regularly) : 


᾿Επιστήμονες τὰ καθήκοντα knowing their duty. C. ut. 3, 9. 
σὲ φύξιμος able to escape thee. S. an. 787. τὰ μετέωρα dpor- 
τιστής one who studies things on high. Av. 18 Ὁ. 


a. A phrase may be equivalent to a transitive verb, and so 
take an accusative : 


Τεθνᾶσι τῷ δέει τοὺς τοιούτους ἀποστόλους they die of fear 
of (are frightened to death at) such expeditions. D. 4, 45. 


The Accusative is used after the particles of swear- 
ing, v7 and μά, as with ὄμνῦμι (5380 a). νή affirms ; 
μά denies, unless vai yes precedes : 

Νὴ Δία or val pa Δία yes, by Zeus; pa Δία or 
ov pa Δία no, by Zeus. 


533 


534 


535 


THE ACCUSATIVE 211 


In poetry the accusative may denote the limit of motion: 


Ἥξεις Ὑβριστὴν ποταμὸν ov ψευδώνυμον thou wilt come to the 
Brawling stream, not falsely named. A. rp. 715. σὲ τόδ᾽ ἐλή- 
λυθε πᾶν κράτος to thee all this power has come. S. ». 141. τίς 
ποτε ayAaas ἔβας Θήβας what art thou that hast come to glo- 
rious Thebes? S. or. 153. 


Two Accusatives denoting the same person or thing, 
the direct (outer) object and a predicate accusative, 
may stand with some verbs: 

Κῦρον σατράπην ἐποίησε καὶ στρατηγὸν δὲ 
αὐτὸν ἀπέδειξε he made Cyrus satrap, and appointed 
him general also. Δν. τ. 1,3. τοὺς ἰχθῦς οἱ Σύροι 
θεοὺς ἐνόμιζον the Syrians regarded the fishes as 
gods, Av. τ. 4, 9. 


a. These predicate accusatives shade off gradually into 
simple appositives ; some cases may be taken in either way: 

Ἔδωκα δωρεὰν τὰ λύτρα 7 gave the ransom as a gift. D. 
19, 1770. 

b. In the passive the direct object is made subject; the 
other accusative remains a predicate noun, agreeing with the 
subject : 

Κῦρος κατεπέμφθη σατράπης, στρατηγὸς δὲ ἀπεδείχθη 
Cyrus was sent down as satrap, and was appointed general. 
mt. 9, 7, 


Two Accusatives, one of the person and one of the 


thing (double outer object), are found with some 


verbs, especially those meaning ask, demand, teach, 
remind, hide, deprive : 

Κῦρον αἰτεῖν πλοῖα to ask Cyrus for boats. 
AN. 1.3, 14. ἀναμνήσω ὑμᾶς Kal τοὺς τῶν προγόνων 
κινδύνους L will also remind you of the dangers of 


536 


212 SIMPLE SENTENCES © 


your forefathers. Avx.u.2,11. τὰ ἡμέτερδ, Has 
ἀποστερεῖ he is depriving us of our property. DV. 4, 50. 


THE INNER OBJECT 


An Accusative of the Znner object (Cognate Accusa- 
tive) is found with many verbs. It repeats the mean- 
ing of the verb in the form of a noun or pronoun. 


a. A noun, with a modifying word or clause (rarely 
omitted) : 

Στρατηγεῖν ταύτην τὴν στρατηγίᾶν to act as 
general in this campaign. An. τ. 8, 156. ἄλλην μὲν ἀρ- 
χὴν οὐδεμίαν πώποτε ἦρξα L never held any other 
magistracy. Av. 82>. κινδυνεύω τὸν ἔσχατον κίν δῦ- 
νον I am in the utmost danger, Av. 84 6. ξυνέφυγε 
τὴν φυγὴν ταύτην he shared the late ewile. Ar. 21 a. 
So δικάζειν δίκην twa decide a suit, φεύγειν δίκην 
τινά be defendant in a suit, γράφεσθαι γραφήν τινα 
bring an indictment, θύειν τὰ Λύκαια celebrate by 
sacrifice the Lykava, ete. 


b. An adjective or pronoun in the neuter : 


"Eralov τι τοιοῦτον L had some such experience 
as this, Av. 22a. Μελήτῳ τούτων οὔτε μέγα οὔτε 
μικρὸν πώποτε ἐμέλησεν Meletos never cared either 
much or little about these matters. Ar. 26b. So τί 
χρήσεται τούτῳ ; what use will he make of this? 
μέγα φρονεῖν be proud (think large), πάντα πεῖ: 
θεσθαι render all obedience, ete. 

6. Some verbs take both a direct object and a cog: 
nate accusative : 


537 


538 


THE ACCUSATIVE 213 


Ἡμᾶς τὰ αἴσχιστα αἰκισάμενος by inflicting 
on us the most shameful outrages. Ax. τιι. 1, 18, ἕκ α- 
στον εὐεργετεῖν τὴν μεγίστην εὐεργεσίαν to confer 
on each the greatest benefaction. λν. 86 ς. ἕτεροι δὲ 
πολλὰ κἀγαθὰ ὑμᾶς εἰσιν εἰργασμένοι and others 
have done many good things to you. 1. 16, 19. 

The inner object may stand also with the passive : 

Τί ἀδικηθεὶς ὑπ᾿ ἐμοῦ viv ἐπιβουλεύεις por; what wrong did 


you receive from me, that you are now scheming against me? 
AN. I. 6, 8. 


d. A few adjectives also take a cognate accusative : 
Σοφὸς τὴν ἐκείνων σοφίαν, ἀμαθὴς τὴν ἀμαθίαν wise in their 
wisdom, ignorant with their ignorance. Av. 22 e. 


FREER ACCUSATIVES 


The Accusative may specify to what particular or de- 
tail a statement is meant to apply (Specifying Ac- 
cusative) : 

Ilorapos Κύδνος ὄνομα, εὖρος δύο πλέθρων a 
river, Kydnos by name, of two plethra in width. Ax. 
L 2, 23. ἔρωτι θυ μὸν ἐκπλαγεῖσ᾽ ᾿Ιάσονος smitten in 
heart with love for Iason. Ἔ. ν᾿ 8. ἀποτμηθέντες tas 
κεφαλάς beheaded (having their heads cut off). Ax. 
u.6,1. βέλτιόν ἐστι σῶμά γ᾽ ἢ ψυχὴν νοσεῖν tis 
better to be ill in body than in soul. Mex. 

With many words the dative may be used in the same 
sense (527 b). 

The Accusative of a noun of time or space may de- 
note extent : 

Ἔμεινε τρεῖς ἡμέρας he remained three days. 
ETN γεγονὼς ἑβδομήκοντα seventy years old. Av. 17 a. 


539 


540 


541 


214 SIMPLE SENTENCES 


πολὺν χρόνον ἠπόρουν L was in doubt a long time. 
Ap, 21 b. 

᾿Ἐξελαύνει σταθμὸν ἕνα παρασάγγας ὀκτώ he 
marches one day's journey, eight parasangs. ἀπεῖχον 
τῆς Ἑλλάδος ov μεῖον ἢ μύρια στάδια they were 
not less than ten thousand stades distant from Greece. 


AN, 111, 1, 2. 


The Accusative may stand in apposition to a clause or sen- 
tence : 

"EtAn θυτὴρ γενέσθαι θυγατρός, πολέμων ἀρωγᾶν he endured 
to sacrifice his daughter, as an aid to war. A. λα. 3806, τῶνδ᾽ 
ἔλεγχον τοῦτο μὲν Πυθώδ᾽ ἰὼν πεύθου τὰ χρησθέντα as a test of 
this, first go to Pytho and inquire about the response. 8. or. 603. 

Here belong expressions like προῖκα as a gift, freely, χάριν 
τινός as a favor to (for the sake of) some one, τεκμήριον as evi- 
dence, τὸ μέγιστον as the chief point, τὸ λεγόμενον as the saying 
is. When placed before the clause, such expressions may pass 
over into the use mentioned in 491 d. 


The Accusative in many expressions has become in 
effect an adverb. Such Adverbial Accusatives are 
special forms of the uses described in 586-539, we can 
not always say which. ‘The following are rather fre- 
quent : 

Τόνδε τὸν τρόπον in this manner, τὴν ταχίστην 
(ὁδόν) by the quickest road, most speedily, οὐκ ἀρχήν 
not at all, δίκην like, in the manner of, πρῶτον at jirst, 
τὸ πρῶτον first, τὸ Nourdy hereafter, τί why ? tu some- 
what, τοῦτο or ταῦτα for this reason. 


For the accusative absolute see 591. For the subject of the 
infinitive see 570 d. 


542 


643 


544 


ADJECTIVES 215 


ADJECTIVES 


An Adjective takes the gender, number, and case of 
its noun. This applies to all adjectival words that 
are declined—the article, participles, and adjective 
pronouns—whether attributive or predicate. 


The noun with which an adjectival word agrees is often not 
expressed : 

Ἡ δεξιά the right hand (χείρ), τὴν ταχίστην the quickest way 
(ὁδόν), paxpav a long way (ὁδόν), οἱ πολλοί the many. 

a. Note the two cases that may arise when the subject of 
an infinitive is omitted : 

(1) Βούλεται σοφὸς γενέσθαι he wishes to become wise. Here 
the unexpressed subject of the inf. is the same as that of 
βούλεται, the principal verb; hence the predicate adjective 
σοφός agrees with the subject of the latter, in the nomi- 
native. 

(2) Κακούργου ἐστὶ κριθέν τ᾽ ἀποθανεῖν, στρατηγοῦ δὲ μαχό- 
μενον τοῖς πολεμίοις it 1s like a criminal to die by sentence of 
court, but like a general to die fighting with the enemy. D. 4, 47. 
Here κριθέντα and μαχόμενον agree with the understood sub- 
ject of ἀποθανεῖν, which subject is omitted because indefinite 
and general. 


By omission of the noun many adjectives become 
nouns ; any adjective or participle may be so used, 
most often with the article (cp. 552, 555 b, 582 a), but 
also without an article: 

Διδακτόν ἐστιν ἡ ἀρετή virtue is a thing that 
may be taught. Pr. 320 b. (Here διδακτόν, instead 
of agreeing in gender with ἀρετή, is a predicate noun.) 
ῥητορική rhetoric, the art (τέχνη) of speaking. 


545 


546 


216 SIMPLE SENTENCES 


SPECIAL IDIOMS OF PREDICATION 


The commonest form of predication is a simple verb; the 
copula εἶμι or the like with a predicate adjective or noun is 
also familiar, and is like English and Latin usage; the predi- 
cate noun agreeing with the object is described in 584. But 
Greek employs the predicate noun and adjective (and par- 
ticiple) more freely than English or Latin does, and in some 
peculiar idioms.’ 


A Predicate noun or adjective (or pronoun) agreeing 
with the subject often requires in translation a differ- 
ent construction : 

᾿Εγὼ σὲ ἄσμενος ἑώρᾶκα Lam glad to have seen 
you. Ακ. τι. 1, 1. “Entvaga προτέρα Κύρου eis Tap- 
σοὺς ἀφίκετο Lpyaxa arrived in Tarsoi before Cyrus. 
An. 1. 2,25. ὄρθριος ἥκεις you have come before sun- 
Tisé, PR. 313 b. συμπλέων ἐθελοντής sailing with 
them as a volunteer. D. 4,39. ἐγὼ μὲν γείτων οἰκῶ 
τῇ Ἑλλάδι 7 live as neighbor to Greece. An. π. 3, 18. 


1 English uses many predicate adjectives and nouns in a manner like 
those in 546, 547; but the words so used are mostly different in meaning 
from those so used in Greek, and they are much fewer and less common: 


Benighted walks under the midday sun.—Miron, Comus. 


To glide a sunbeam by the blasted pine, 
To sit ὦ star upon the sparkling spire.—Trnnyson, Princess. 


Noon lay heavy on flower and tree.—SuE.uey, To Night. 
Kneel undisturbed, fair saint. THACKERAY. 
—May find 
Thee sitting careless on a granary floor.—Kerats, Ode to Autumn. 
And learns her gone and far from home.—Trnnyson, In Mem., Viii. 


So in many common prose expressions: go barefoot, run dry, lie quiet, 
live secure, come home hungry, also build a wall high, strike one dumb, 
walk oneself lame, drink the stream dry, ete. 


547 


548 


SPECIAL IDIOMS OF PREDICATION 211 


ἔλεγε πρῶτος Τισσαφέρνης Lissaphernes spoke first. 


Ay, τι. 8, 17. τίς ποτε ἀγλαὰς ἔβᾶς Θήβᾶς ; what art 
thou that hast come to glorious Thebes? 8. ov. 153. 


A Predicate adjective or noun agreeing with the object 
—accusative, genitive, or dative—often requires a 
different construction in translation : 

Μετεώρους ἐξεκόμισαν tas ἁμάξᾶς they lifted 


> 


the wagons up and brought them out. Αν. τ. 5,8 ἢ 


᾿βαρυδαίμονα μήτηρ μ᾽ ἔτεκεν surely ill-fated was 


Lat my birth (my mother bore me as one of evil fate). 
E. au. 865. τίνας ποθ᾽ ἕδρας τἄσδε μοι θοάζετε; what 
as this session that ye hold? (Ge. why sit ye thus 7). 
S.or2 τὸν στρατὸν ἐλάσσω ἤγαγον the army 
(which) they led (was) smaller, Ὑ. τ. 11. 

‘Hyovpevon αὐτονόμων τῶν ξυμμάχων leading 
their allies, but leaving them self-governing. Ὑ. 1. 97. 

Χειμαδίῳ χρῆσθαι Λήμνῳ to use Lemnos as win- 
ter quarters.  D. 4, 82. 


The predication is sometimes implied, or merely indi- 
cated by the order, where it must in English be ex- 
pressed (cp. 552 d) : 

Διὰ τὸ χειροπλήθεσι τοῖς λίθοις σφενδονᾶν be- 
cause the stones used in their slings were big enough 
to fill the hand, Ay. τι. 3,17. ἀνειμένῃ τῇ διαίτῃ by 
their mode of life being more relaxed, 1.e., because 
their mode of life was more relawed, 1.1.6. διὰ τὴν 
ληστείᾶν ἐπὶ πολὺ ἀντισχοῦσαν because piracy 
had prevailed widely. 6. τ. 1. 


549 


550 


551 


218 SIMPLE SENTENCES 


THE ARTICLE 


The Article 6, ἡ, τό, originally a demonstrative pro- 
noun, retains that meaning in a few phrases in Attic 
prose. 

a. With μέν and δέ ino pe... ὁ δέ theone... 
the other, in all the cases; also in τὸ μέν... τὸ δέ 
and τὰ pe... τὰ δέ used adverbially (540) : 

Oi μὲν ἐτόξευον, οἱ δ᾽ ἐσφενδόνων some used 
their bows and others their slings. Ax. πι. 8,% τὰ 
μέν τι μαχόμενοι τὰ δὲ ἀναπαυόμενοι now fighting 
a little and now resting. An. rv. 1, 14. 

b. In 6 δέ ἡ δέ τὸ δέ but (or and) he (she, this), 
beginning a sentence, when the subject changes: 

Κῦρος δίδωσι Κλεάρχῳ pupiovs dapekovs: ὁ δὲ λα- 
βὼν τὸ χρῦσίον στράτευμα συνέλεξεν Cyrus gives 
Klearchos ten thousand darics, and he taking the 
money collected an army. Ax. τ. 1, 9. 

6. In πρὸ τοῦ before this, earlier; also in καὶ τόν 
(τήν, τούς) and τὸν (τὴν, τοὺς) δέ, When Kat ὃς ἔφη, ἢ 

os (660), and the like are changed to the infinitive 
in indirect quotation (577, 578): 

Kat τὸν εἰπεῖν and that he said. τὸν δὲ yeas 
and that he laughed. 

Poets omit the article freely where prose requires it; they 
also use it more freely as a demonstrative, and sometimes (as 
in Homer) as a relative pronoun. 

The differences between Greek and English in the use 
of the article must be learned in reading! note espe: 
cially the following : 


552 


THE ARTICLE 219 


a. Names of persons often take the article : 

Διαβάλλει τὸν Κῦρον he slanders Cyrus; but also συλλαμ- 
βάνει Κῦρον he arrests Cyrus. An. τ. 1, ὃ. 

b. Abstract nouns generally have the article : 

Ἢ σοφία or σοφία wisdom. 

6. With a possessive pronoun or a possessive genitive the 
noun has the article when a definite person or thing is meant: 

‘Epos φίλος or φίλος μου a friend of mine, but ὁ ἐμὸς φίλος 
or ὃ φίλος μου my friend (a definite person). Ada, ἐν οὗ τῷ 
ἱερῷ ἐσμεν Zeus, in whose sacred precinct we are. TT. τη. 14. 
ποταμὸς ov TO εὖρος a river whose width. 

d. The article alone is often used where English requires a 
possessive pronoun : 

Διαβάλλει τὸν Κῦρον πρὸς τὸν ἀδελφόν he brings Cyrus into 
discredit with his brother. Aw. τ. 1, 3. 

e. Names of countries, mostly adjectives by origin, com- 
monly have the article : 

‘H Ἕλλάς Greece. 

f. Names of peoples often omit the article : 

᾿Αθηναῖοι or οἱ ᾿Αθηναῖοι the Athenians. 

g. Predicate nouns rarely have the article; the subject 
and a predicate noun are often thus distinguished (cp. 552) : 

᾿Εχθρὸς ἅνθρωπος (86 b) the man is an enemy. 1). 4, 50, 

h. For the article with demonstrative pronouns see 553, 
554. 


a. The place just after the article is called the attrzbu- 
tive position. Most attributive words take that posi- 
tion if the noun has an article: 

Οἱ ἀγαθοὶ δημιουργοί the good artisans. 

Ὁ. Sometimes the article and an attributive stand after the 
noun, as if added as an afterthought : 

Κατὰ τοὺς νόμους τοὺς κειμένους according to the laws, the 


established (laws). τήν τε πόλιν διήρπασαν Kal τὰ βασίλεια τὰ ἐν 


αὐτῇ they plundered both the city and the palace in it. ΑΝ, 
I, 2, 26. 


553 


220) SIMPLE SENTENCES 


6. If an adjective (or a participle, adverb, or other 
expression used adjectively) stands before or after 
both article and noun (the article being before the 
noun, in the normal order), it is in the predicate posi- 
tion, and is a predicate, whether a verb is expressed 
or not: 

᾿Αγαθοὶ ot δημιουργοί the artisans are good. καλὸν 
τὸ ἄθλον καὶ ἡ ἐλπὶς μεγάλη the prize is noble and our 
hope great, Pu. 114 ς. 


d. An adjective in the predicate position with a 
noun in the genitive, dative, or accusative often 
requires special care in translating (cp. 548): 

Mer ἀκραίφνους τῆς Evppaylas with the alli- 
ance still intact, T.1.19. διὰ φιλίας. τῆς χώρᾶς ἀπάξει 
he will make the country friendly in leading us through. 
Ay. 1.3, 14. Κῦρος ψιλὴν ἔχων τὴν κεφαλὴν εἰς τὴν 
μάχην καθίστατο Cyrus went into the battle with his 
head bare, Ax. τ. 8, 6. οὐκ ἐμὸν ἐρῶ τὸν λόγον, ἀλλ᾽ εἰς 
ἀξιόχρεων ὑμῖν τὸν λέγοντα ἀνοίσω the statement I shall 
make will not be mine, but the speaker to whom TI shall 
refer it will be sufficient for you, Δ». 20 ὁ. 


But ὅδε, οὗτος, and ἐκεῖνος regularly take the predi- 
cate position, the noun requiring the article; when 
the article is omitted, the noun or the pronoun is a 
predicate : 

Ἐκεῖνος ὃ mats Or ὁ παῖς ἐκεῖνος yonder boy. 
But ταύτην εἰρήνην ὑπολαμβάνει he understands 
this to be peace. Ῥ. 9,9. τῷδε φίλῳ χρῶμαι 7 treat 
this man as a friend. 


554 


555 


THE ARTICLE 221 


a. Proper names, however, may omit the article; and if 
another adjectival expression is used with the pronoun, the 
latter may stand in the attributive position : 

“Ode (6) Swxparns this Socrates. τὰς ἐπιστολιμαίους ταύτας 
δυνάμεις these forces on paper (forces that figure in dispatches). 
Ὁ. 4,19. τὰς ἐξαίφνης ταύτας orpareias these sudden expedi- 
tions. Ὁ. 4,17. But also ἐκ τῆς ἀμελείᾶς ταύτης τῆς dyav out 
of this too great carelessness. UD. 4, 17. ὶ 
Likewise ἕκαστος, ἑκάτερος, ἄμφω, ἀμφότερος take the 
predicate position, 7f the noun has the article. So 
also a personal or a relative pronoun in the possessive 
genitive (506 a; μου, ἡμῶν, σοῦ, ὑμῶν, αὐτοῦ, αὐτῶν, οὗ, 
ὧν, ete.), with the same exception for the personal 
pronouns as for ὅδε, etc. (558 a): 

Τὼ παῖδε ἀμφοτέρω both his sons. ἡ πόλις 
ἡμῶν our state. 

a. But the reflexives used possessively (ἐμαυτοῦ, ἑαυτοῦ, etc.) 
take the attributive position, if the article is present : 

Ἢ ἑαυτοῦ χώρα his own land. 

a. An adverbial expression is made adjectival by 
standing in the attributive position : 

Οἱ πάλαι ᾿Αθηναῖοι the Athenians of old. ἡ 
οἴκαδε 600s the way home. τῶν οἴκοι ἀντιστασιω- 
τῶν his opponents at home. Δι. τ. 1,10. ἢ τότε ῥώμη 
τῶν Λακεδαιμονίων, ἡ νῦν ὕβρις τούτου the strength 
of the Spartans then, the insolence of this man now. 
D. 4, 3. 

b. An adjectival expression is made in effect a noun 
by having an article before it and no noun after it: 

Oi πάλαι the men of old. οἱ πολλοί the many, 
the masses. ot ἀμφὶ Γλνυτον Anytos and his fol- 


556 


557 


222, SIMPLE SENTENCES 


lowers (those about Anytos). ὁ Bovhopevos any 
one who wishes. οὐκ ἔστιν ὁ τολμήσων there is no 
one who will dare. Ax. τι. ὃ, 5. 
c. Any quoted word, phrase, or clause is made a noun by 
prefixing τό: 
Τὸ μηδὲν dyav the saying, “ Nothing too far.” 
d. Some adverbial expressions are extended and made ad- 
verbial accusatives (540) by prefixing τό or τά: 
Τὰ νῦν now. τὸ κατ᾽ ἐμέ as regards me. τὸ δὲ ὅπως, 
τοῦτο λέγε but the how, tell us that’ ~Das we 
Distinguish 
πολλά many things, τὰ πολλά most things, im most 
CASES 3 
πολύ much, τὸ πολύ the greater part ; 
πλεῖστοι very many, οἱ πλεῖστοι most people, the 
majority. 
Also ἡ μέση πόλις the city between (two others), 
μέση ἡ πόλις OL ἡ πόλις μέση the midst of the 
city 5 : 
ἡ ἐσχάτη χώρα the farthest land, 
ἐσχάτη ἡ χώρᾶ Or ἡ χώὠώρᾶ ἐσχάτη the edge of 
the land ; 
ὁ μόνος vids the only son, 
μόνος ὁ vids OF 6 υἱὸς μόνος the son only. 


PRONOUNS 


The endings of the verb indicate the person (first, 
second, or third) with sufficient clearness ; hence the 
personal pronouns in the nominative, ἐγώ, σύ, ἡμεῖς, 
ὑμεῖς, are used only when emphasized. So in the 
third person οὗτος, ὅδε, or ἐκεῖνος as subject : 


558 


559 


560 


561 


PRONOUNS 223 


᾿Εγὼ ὀκνοίην av ἐμβαίνειν 7 should myself hesi- 
tate to go aboard. Ay. ι. 8, 17. ἀλλ᾽ εἶδεν τοῦτο καλῶς 
ἐκεῖνος but με saw this clearly. D. 4, 5. 


For the three meanings of αὐτός see 199. Note that when 
standing alone in the nominative αὐτός always means 1286, 
emphasizing some word understood : 

Αὐτὸς ξυνειδώς φησιν; does he say it of his own knowledge ? 
S. or. 704, ἥξει γὰρ αὐτά things will come of themselves. S. or. 
841. αὐτὸς ἔφη he himself (the master) said it, ipse dixtt. 

In other cases also the word emphasized by αὐτός may be 
omitted : 

Πλευστέον εἰς ταύτας αὐτοῖς ἐμβᾶσιν you must sail, going on 
board in person (ὑμῖν being understood). D. 4, 16. 

a. Note also the idiomatic use of αὐτός with an ordinal 
numeral : 

Ἡιρέθη πρεσβευτὴς δέκατος αὐτός he was chosen ambassa- 
dor with nine others (himself tenth). HH. u. 2, 17. 


In phrases like ἡμέτερα αὐτῶν our own things the possessive 
pronoun (adjective) and the possessive genitive are put side 
by side, as equivalent constructions, instead of ἡμῶν αὐτῶν, ete. 


Ὅς retains its earlier force, as a demonstrative, in a 


few phrases : 

Ἦ δ᾽ ὅς said he. καὶ ds ἔφη and he said. So 
Kal ἡ, καὶ οἵ. Cp. 549. 

a. For the use of és as a relative see 613, 614. 


a. Οὗτος in the nominative is sometimes used in call- 
ing to a person: 

Οὗτος, τί ποιεῖς you there, what are you doing ? 
AR. R. 198. 

b. Note also ὅδε, οὗτος, or ἐκεῖνος in the predicate, 
translated by here, there, ete. : 


562 


563 


564 


294 SIMPLE SENTENCES 


"08" ἐκ δόμων περᾷ here he comes 7» om the house. 
S. ay. 886. νῆες ἐκεῖναι ἐπιπλέουσι 2 yonder are ships 
sailing in, 1.1.51. οἵδε παῖδες στείχουσι here come . 
the boys. EK. μ. 46. 


INFINITIVES 


The Infinitive is a verbal noun whose range of use has 
been much enlarged. Originally a ¢o or for dative, it 
retains that force in some of the most common con- 
structions (565, 566) ; the others are developed from 
this, but the connection is not always clear. The 
English infinitive with ¢o is in many uses closely 
parallel. 

a. As a verb, the Infinitive has voice and tense, though it 
does not distinguish person or number; it may take a subject 
in the accusative, and an object (accusative, genitive, or 
dative), ike the rest of the verb to which it belongs; it is 
modified by adverbs and particles, including ἄν. 

As a noun it may in some uses take the article pe 


and so be marked as haying a noun construction in any case 
but the vocative. 


The present, aorist, and perfect Tenses of the Infini- 


tive distinguish kinds of action (as in the subjune- 


tive, optative, and imperative, 475, 483, 484), not dif. 
ferences of time. The future puts the action in a’ 
time later than that of the principal verb. 

a..When the infinitive represents a finite verb, it retains 


the tense and tense meaning of the form which it replaces 
(577). 


The negative with am infinitive is usually μή, except 
when the infinitive represents an original finite verb 


565 


INFINITIVES 225 


which had οὐ; and even then after some verbs there 


is a tendency to change οὐ to μή (579 a). 


The Infinitive may be connected, as a 10 or for dative, 
with verbs, adjectives, adverbs, nouns, or with a 
whole phrase : 

Τὴν χώρᾶν ἐπέτρεψε διαρπάσαι τοῖς Ἕλλησιν he 
gave the land over to the Greeks to plunder (for plun- 
dering). Av. 1. 2,19. πολλαὶ ἅμαξαι ἦσαν φέρεσθαι 
there were many wagons to be carried off. Ax. τι. 1, 6. 


: 9 ν - ͵ 309 59 A e ® A 4 A . . 
οὐχ wpa καθεύδειν οὐδ᾽ ἀμελεῖν ἡμῶν αὐτῶν it 18 NO 


time for sleeping or for being careless of ourselves. 
An. 1. 8, 11. 


3 
a. This Dative Infinitive has a wide range of mean- 


ing, from simple purpose to cases where it merely 
defines the application of a word or phrase. The 
dative force can usually be seen, but ἐγ) or some other 
preposition may be necessary in translation : 

Εἵλεσθε ἄρχειν pov you chose (them) to rule over 
me. Av. 38 6. ἕτοιμος λέγειν ready to speak (for 
speaking). δεινὸς λέγειν skilled in (with reference 
to) speaking. οὐχ ἡδέα ἀκούειν not pleasant to 
hear. Ὁ. 4, 88 οἷος det ποτε μεταβάλλεσθαι 
(such) as to be always changing. ἩΗ. 1. 3, 45. ἱκανὸς 
Tas ἀκροπόλεις φυλάττειν sufficient for guarding 
the citadels, Ax. τ. 3,1. Κλέαρχος στυγνὸς ἦν ὁρᾶν 
Klearchos was repulsive to see, Ax. τι. θ, 9. οὔτοι 
συνέχθειν ἀλλὰ συμφιλεῖν ἐφῦν 7 am not one 
(was not born) to join in hatre’, but in love. 5. a. 
623. τοσούτου δέω ὁμολογεῖν so far am 7 from 

15 : 


566 


226 SIMPLE SENTENCES 


agreeing (I lack so much with reference to agreeing). 
D. 9,17. νόσημα μεῖζον 7 φέρειν a trouble too great 
to bear (greater than for bearing). 8. or. 1298. 

Ὁ. Note the use with ἔχω: 


Οὐδὲν εἶχε φράσαι he had nothing to tell. S. or. 119. This 
easily passes into the meaning he could tell nothing ; hence 
ἔχω becomes practically equal to δύναμαι, taking an infinitive 
(most often a word of saying) with or without an object: οὐδὲ 
δεῦρο ἰόντες ἐκ τῆς χώρᾶς οὐδὲν εἴχομεν λαμβάνειν even when coming 
hither we could not take anything from the country. An. τι. 2, 11, 


The Infinitive with ὡς or ὥστε 18 used 


a. With adjectives in the comparative, or imply- Ὁ 
Ing comparison : 

Ὀλίγοι ws ἐγκρατεῖς εἶναι too few to have power. 
C.1v. 5,15. βραχύτερα ἢ ὡς ἐξικνεῖσθαι too short 
to reach, Av. ut 8, ἡ. ἐλάττω ἔχοντα δύναμιν ἢ ὥστε 
τοὺς φίλους ὠφελεῖν having too little force to aid his 
Sriends (less than as for aiding). H. w. 8, 388. γέρων 
ἐκεῖνος ὥστε σ᾽ ὠφελεῖν he is old for aiding you. 
EK. anv. 80. 

b. ΤῸ denote result, especially an intended result ; 
ὥστε 15 the usual word in prose, often preceded by a 
demonstrative ; the idea of intention gradually fades 
out : 

Εἶχον τὰ δρέπανα eis γῆν βλέποντα ws διακόπ- 
τειν they had the scythes extending toward the ground 
(as) for cutting in two (whomever they came on). 
An. 1. 8, 10. ὑπελάσᾶς ws συναντῆὴ σαι riding up 80 
as to meet him. Ax.1.8,15. νυκτὸς ἰέναι, ds μὴ 


567 


INFINITIVES OO 


ὁρᾶσθαι to go by night so as not to be seen. Ax. w. 
6, 13. χρόνῳ mor ἐξέπραξαν ὡς δοῦναι δίκην at 
length they have wrought it out so as to pay the pen- 
alty. 8. ax. 303. 

Μηχαναὶ πολλαί εἰσιν ὥστε διαφεύγειν θάνα- 
τον many devices there are for escaping death, Δν. 89 ἃ. 
πάντας οὕτω διατιθεὶς ὥστε αὑτῷ φίλους εἶναι SO 
disposing all (putting all into such disposition) as to 
be friendly to him. AN ATi ἘΠ τ ἔχω τριήρεις ὥστε 
ἑλεῖν τὸ ἐκείνων πλοῖον 7 have triremes so as to catch 
their boat. Ακ. τ. 4,8 δείν᾽ ἐπηπείλει, ὦ σ τ᾽ οὔτε VUK- 
τὸς ὕπνον οὐτ᾽ ἐξ ἡμέρας ἐμὲ στεγάζειν he made 
dreadful threats, so that neither by night nor day did 
sleep cover me. 8. Ε. 780. The last example comes 
very close to the use of ὥστε with an indicative, de- 
noting an actual result (639 a). 


c. Sometimes ὥστε with the infinitive states a condition or 
proviso (cp. 567) : 

Τῶν λοιπῶν ἄρχειν Ῥλλήνων, ὥστε αὐτοὺς ὑπακούειν βασιλεῖ 
to rule the rest of the Greeks, provided they would (so as to) 
themselves obey the king. OD. 6, 11. 


The Infinitive after ἐφ᾽ ᾧ or ἐφ᾽ ᾧτε states a condi- 
tion or proviso : 

Οἱ δ᾽ ἔφασαν ἀποδώσειν ἐφ᾽ @ μὴ κἄειν τὰς οἰκίας 
and they said they would give back (the dead), on con- 
dition of their not burning the houses, ΑΝ. ww. 2, 19. 
ἀφίεμέν σε, ἐπὶ τούτῳ μέντοι, ἐφ᾽ ᾧτε μηκέτι φιλο- 
σοφεῖν we let you off, on this condition however, that 
you no longer seek wisdom, Av, 29 ὁ, 


568 


569 


570 


228 SIMPLE SENTENCES 


The Infinitive is used with πρίν before: 


Διέβησαν πρὶν τοὺς ἄλλους ἀποκρίνασθαι 
they crossed before the others answered. Avy. τ. 4, 16. 
κάτειμι πρίν μοι μοῖραν ἐξήκειν βίου L go down 
before my allotted term of life is over. 8. an. 896. 

For πρίν with finite modes see 644. 

a. Rarely πρότερον ἤ with the infinitive has the same mean- 

ing. 
The Infinitive is used in some idiomatic phrases, partly off- 
shoots of the dative infinitive (566 a and b), partly standing 
nearer to the adverbial accusative (540). Among the most 
frequent are: 

Ὡς εἰπεῖν or ws ἔπος εἰπεῖν so to speak, softening an expres- 
sion that might seem too strong, (ὡς) συνελόντι εἰπεῖν in a word 
(for one to say, taking τέ together), ws εἰκάσαι to make a guess, 
ἐμοὶ δοκεῖν, 12 MY View, as It Seems to Me, ὀλίγου δεῖν almost (to 
lack little), ἑκὼν εἶναι willingly, τὸ νῦν εἶναι for the present, τὸ 
κατὰ τοῦτον εἶναι as regards him. 


The Infinitive 15 used as object with many verbs: 

a, As the only object: 

Πιθεῖν Τιτᾶνας οὐκ ἠδυνήθην L could not per- 
suade the Titans. A. vs. 220. ἔμελλε καταλύειν he 
was intending to halt. Ay. τ. 8, 1. εἰς Πισίδᾶς βουλό- 
μενος στρατεύεσθαι wishing to make an eapedi- 
tion against the Pisidians. Δκ. τ. 1,11. φοβοίμην 
av ἕπεσθαι 17] should be afraid to follow. Ax. 1. 8, 1%. 

Ὁ. With μέλλω intend, am about, the future infinitive is 
often used (also the present, sometimes the aorist) : 

Μέλλω ὑμᾶς διδάξειν Lam about to explain to you. Av. 91 Ὁ, 
ἔμελλεν αὐτὼ καλώ te κἀγαθὼ ποιήσειν he was likely to make 
them what they should be. Av. 20a, ἔμελλε καταλύειν he 


571 


INFINITIVES 229 


was about to halt. An. 8, 1. μέλλω παθεῖν 7 am about to 
suffer. A. PB. 652. 

In all other uses the future infinitive may be regarded as 
representing an indicative (577, 578). 

6. With another object: 

Τοὺς ὁπλίτας ἐκέλευσεν αὐτοῦ μεῖναι he bade the 
hoplites remain there. Ακ. τ. ὅ, 18. ἐποίησε Συέννεσιν 
μὴ δύνασθαι κατὰ γὴν ἐναντιοῦσθαι Κύρῳ (the Spar- 
tan naval commander) made Syennesis unable to op- 
pose Cyrus by ἘΠ ΗΠ τὰ iw Fen Ret ee ἡδοναὶ πείθουσι 
τὴν ψυχὴν μὴ σωφρονεῖν pleasures urge the soul 
not to use self-control. Ὑ. τ. 2, 38. 

d. From such uses as the last the accusative came 
to be regarded’ as the subject of the infinitive : 


Ἐβούλετο τὼ παῖδε ἀμφοτέρω παρεῖναι he 
wished both his sons to be near, Av. τ. 1,1. Σωκράτης 
ἡγεῖτο θεοὺς πάντα εἰδέναι Sokrates believed that 
the gods know everything. ἍΜ. τ. 1, 19. 


Thus arose the infinitive clause with subject accusative, 
which received a wide extension, as in Latin. 


The subject of an infinitive is omitted when it is the 
same as that of the leading verb; a modifier of the 
subject, whether predicative or attributive, then 
agrees with the subject of the leading verb: 

Ὁ δ᾽ ὑπέσχετο ἀνδρὶ ἑκάστῳ δώσειν πέντε ἀργυ- 


ΤᾺ similar growth can be traced in English, in such a sequence as : 
(1) It ἐβ good for us to be here, (2) For us to be here vs good, (3) For us 
to be here is a proof of our friendship. In (1) for ws modifies good ; in 
(2) the same construction is possible, but one is inclined to take for us to 
be here as a clause, the subject of ¢s good ; in (8) the last construction is 
the only one possible. 


572 


230 SIMPLE SENTENCES 


ρίου μνᾶς and he promised that he would give five 
minae tr money to each man (ep. 577 ἃ). AN. τ. 4, 18. 
Πέρσης ἔφη εἶναι he said he was a Persian. Ax. 
TV 417. 

a. A predicate noun or adjective remains in the nomi- 
native when the infinitive, with subject omitted, has the 
article, or depends on a preposition : 

"Opeyopevor TOD πρῶτος ἕκαστος γίγνεσθαι striving each 
to get ahead of the other (to become first). ὙΠ. 1. 65, 10. οὐκ ἐπὶ 
τῷ δοῦλοι εἶναι ἐκπέμπονται ἄποικοι not on the basis of being 
subjects are colonists sent out. T. τ. 84, 1. 

b. If the subject is omitted because indefinite or general, 
a predicate or attributive modifier of it is in the accusative: 

Δίκαιον εὖ πρᾶττοντα μεμνῆσθαι θεοῦ tt 15 just to re- 
member God when one is prospering. Men. 

c. When the omitted subject is the same as the 
object of the leading verb, that object being in the 
genitive or dative, a modifier of the subject may be 
either in the same case or in the accusative: 

Κῦρος παραγγέλλει Κλεάρχῳ λαβόντι ἥκειν ὅσον 
ἦν αὐτῷ στράτευμα, καὶ Ἐενίᾳ ἥκειν παραγγέλλει λα- 
βόντα τοὺς ἄλλους Cyrus ordered Klearchos to come, 
bringing all the force he had; and he ordered Xenias 
to come, bringing the others. An. τ. 3,1. Κύρου ἐδέοντο 
ὡς προθῦμοτάτου γενέσθαι they asked Cyrus to 
show himself as zealous as possible, H. 1. 5, 2. 


With verbs meaning forbid, prevent, deny, escape, 
or alm In any way at a negative effect,’ the infini- 


1 Cp. ‘* You may as well forbid the mountain pines 
To wag their high tops, and to make no noise, 
When they are fretten with the gusts of heaven.” 
Mer. of Ven., iv, 1. 


573 


INFINITIVES 231 


tive often has μή, though English omits the nega- 
tive: 

᾿Αντέλεγόν τινες μὴ ἰέναι πάντας some opposed, 
urging that all should not go. Ax. τι. ὅ, 389. τὸν avdp’ 
ἀπαυδῶ μήτ᾽ ἐνδέχεσθαι μήτε προσφωνεῖν 
twa this man 1 forbid any one to receive or address, 
S. or. 338, ἐγὼ μόνος ἠναντιώθην μηδὲν ποιεῖν παρὰ 
τοὺς νόμους L alone opposed doing anything contrary 
to the laws, Av. ὃ. Ὁ. μικρὸν ἐξέφυγε μὴ καταπε- 
τρωθῆναι he barely escaped being stoned to death. 
Ax. τ. 8, 3. καταρνεῖ μὴ δεδρακέναι τάδε; do you 
deny that you have done this? 58. ax. 442. 


a. Μὴ with an infinitive becomes μὴ οὐ if the leading verb 
has a negative, or is in a question implying a negative : 

Οὐδὲν ἐδύνατο ἀντέχειν μὴ οὐ χαρίζεσθαι he could not hold 
out at all against granting the favor. Ο. τ. 4, 3. τί δῆτα μέλλεις 
μὴ οὐ γεγωνίσκειν τὸ πᾶν; why then do you delay (i.e., do 
not delay) to tell the whole? A. pp. 654. τί ἐμποδὼν μὴ οὐχὶ 
ἀποθανεῖν; what is to hinder (1. 6., οὐδὲν ἐμποδών) our being 
put to death? Ay. τη. 1, 18. 

b. Most of these verbs admit also the simple infinitive 
without μή or μὴ ov: 

Τί κωλύει καὶ τὰ ἄκρα ἡμῖν κελεύειν Κῦρον προκαταλαμβάνειν; 


what hinders our bidding Cyrus occupy the hights also for us ? 
An. 1. 8, 16. 

ο. With verbs of hindering and the like the infinitive may 
also have the article τοῦ, as a from genitive (509) : 

Κωλύσειεν ἂν τοῦ κάειν ἐπιόντας he would prevent them 
trom this attacking and burning. Avy. 1. 6, 2. 


Some of the above infinitives, even those plainly dative in ori- 
gin, occasionally have τό, especially in poetry : 

Οὗτοί εἰσιν μόνοι ἔτι ἡμῖν ἐμποδὼν τὸ μὴ ἤδη εἶναι ἔνθα πάλαι 
σπεύδομεν these alone are still in the way of our being at once 


574 


575 


252 SIMPLE SENTENCES 


where we have so long been eager to be. An. tv. 8, 14. τὸ Bia 
πολιτῶν δρᾶν ἔφῦν ἀμήχανος act in defiance of the state I can 
not. S. an. 79 f. καρδίας δ᾽ ἐξίσταμαι τὸ δρᾶν yet from my heart's 
purpose I withdraw to do tt. S. an. 1106. φόβος ἀνθ᾽ ὕπνου παρα- 
στατεῖ, TO μὴ βλέφαρα συμβαλεῖν fear instead of sleep stands 
near, that I close not my eyes. A. a. 15. 

The τό seems to bring these infinitives into connection 
with the specifying accusative (537), which is in effect much 
like a looser for dative, such as we translate by with reference 
to (5238 a). 


The Infinitive without or with τό 15 used as the sub- 
ject of many verbs—also as a predicate noun or an 


appositive : 


Tpdppata μαθεῖν δεῖ καὶ μαθόντα νοῦν ἔχειν 
one must learn letters, and after. learning them have 
sense. Mex. ἐδόκει μοι ταύτῃ πειρᾶσθαι σωθῆναι 
it seemed to me best to try to save myself in this way. 
L. 12, 15. ἀγαθοῖς ὑμῖν προσήκει εἶναι τέ befits you to 
be brave. Av. τι. 3, 11. τοῦτο ὑμῶν δέομαι, μήτε Oav- 
μάζειν μήτε θορυβεῖν this I ask of you, neither 
to be surprised nor to make a disturbance. Ἀν. 17 ο. 

a. Instead of an impersonal verb with the infinitive as sub- 


ject, a personal construction is often used with the infinitive 
depending on the verb or adjective : 

Kat γὰρ οὐδὲ πόρρω δοκοῦμέν μοι αὐτοῦ καθῆσθαι (instead of 
οὐ δοκεῖ καθῆσθαι) for in fact we seem to be encamped not far 
from him. Ay. τ. 8,12. δίκαιός εἰμι ἀπολογήσασθαι (instead 
of δίκαιόν ἐστιν a.) it is right that I make my defense. Av. 18 a. 


The Infinitive with rod or τῷ may be used in any 


genitive or dative construction that is suitable to its 
meaning : 


576 


577 


INFINITIVES 233 


Νέοις τὸ σιγᾶν κρεῖττόν ἐστι τοῦ λαλεῖν for 
young people silence is better than talking. Mex. ap- 
Eavres τοῦ διαβαίνειν being first in crossing. Ax. 
14,15. ἐκτὸς εἶ τοῦ μέλλειν ἀποθνήσκειν αὖ- 
ριον you are free from the prospect of dying to-morrow. 
Or. 460. τὸ δὲ τῇ ἐπιμελείᾳ περιεῖναι τῶν φίλων καὶ 
τῷ προθυμεῖσθαι χαρίζεσθαι, ταῦτα ἔμοιγε μᾶλ- 
λον δοκεῖ ἀγαστὰ εἶναι but the excelling his friends in 
attentiveness and in his eagerness to do favors, this 
rather to my mind appears admirable. Ax. 1. 9, 34. οὐ 
πρὸς τῷ πόλεις ἀνῃρηκέναι τίθησι Ta Πύθια ; be- 
sides having destroyed states, does he not conduct the 
Pythian festival? Ῥ. 9, 82 ἐπὶ τῷ συνοίσειν ταῦτα 
πεπεῖσθαι λέγειν αἱροῦμαι 7 choose to speak because 
of my conviction that these measures will be for your 
interest. Ὁ. 4,51. κινδυνεύσαιτ᾽ av τῷ τὸν “ENHo- 
movrov ἀλλοτριωθῆναι you would be endangered 
by the fact that the Hellespont has become another’s. 
D. 9, 18. 


An Infinitive with rod is sometimes used to express purpose : 
Μίνως τὸ λῃστικὸν καθήρει τοῦ Tas προσόδους μᾶλλον ἰέναι 
αὐτῷ Minos put down piracy, that his revenues might come to 
him better. TT. τ. 4. 
This may be regarded as a genitive of cause ; ὑπέρ or ἕνεκα 
is sometimes put with it. 


An Infinitive clause, with or without the article, often 
represents a sentence with a finite verb; the original 
sentence is thus changed to a noun and made part of 
another sentence, in one of the constructions above 
described. Most often such an infinitive is the sub- 


578 


294 SIMPLE SENTENCES 


ject or object of a verb of saying or thinking—that 
is, a verb meaning say, tell, hear, learn, or think, be- 
lieve, know, and the like. In such infinitive clauses 

a. The original tense and tense-meaning are re- 
tained, the time (f the original verb was an indica- 
tive) being relative to that of the principal verb. The 
future infinitive is found chiefly in this use. 

An imperfect or pluperfect indicative, as these 
tenses are not made in the infinitive, is represented 
by the present or perfect—the infinitive of the same 
tense-system. 

b. If the original sentence had οὐ, that is usually 
retained, but is sometimes changed to μή (579 a). 

ce. If an original indicative or optative had ay, 
that is retained. Thus ἄν with an infinitive shows 
that the infinitive represents an indicative or optative 
with av (579). 

The Infinitive representing a finite verb often stands 
as object with certain verbs of saying or thinking : 

. Ἐγώ φημι ταῦτα φλυὰρίας εἶναι (representing 
ταῦτα φλυὰρίαι εἰσί) L say that this is nonsense. Ax. 
13,17 ἀντιλέγειν dys τοῖς βουλομένοις ἡμᾶς ἀπο- 
λέσαι you say you spoke against (ἀντέλεγον, 577 a) 
those who wished to destroy us. 1. 12, 26. οὐκ ἔφη 
ὀμεῖσθαι he said he would not take an oath (οὐκ 
ὀμοῦμαι). Η. τ. 8, 11. ὀμόσαντες ὅρκους ἢ μὴν μὴ 
μνησικακήσειν taking oaths that they would verily 
maintain amnesty for the past (οὐ μνησικακήσω, ov 
being here changed to μή because of the idea of will 
implied in an oath), HH. 1. 4, 43. 


579 


ῃ INFINITIVES 235 


Νομίζω ὑμᾶς ἐμοὶ εἶναι καὶ πατρίδα καὶ φίλους 7 
think you are (ὑμεῖς ἐστε) lo me both country and 
friends. Ax. 1.3, 6. οἰόμενοι Ta πάντα νικᾶν καὶ 
Κῦρον ζῆν thinking they were completely victorious 
and Cyrus was alive (νικῶμεν, Gj). Ax. 1,1, ὑμᾶς 
ἔγωγε ἀκούω τοὺς Λακεδαιμονίους ἐκ παίδων κλέπτειν 
μελετᾶν 1] hear that you Spartans practise stealing 
trom childhood (μελετᾶτε). An. wv. 6, 14. πείσεσθαι 
προσδοκῶν expecting that he will suffer (πείσομαι). 
D. 6, 18. dpa προσδοκᾶν αὐτοὺς τοιαῦτα πείθεσθαι 
οἴεσθε do you suppose they expected (προσεδόκων) to 
be suffering like this?  D. 6, 20. 

a. So also as the subject (with λέγεται and the like, 574), 
as appositive, and in the personal construction (574 a) : 

Ἐλέγετο Κύρῳ δοῦναι χρήματα πολλά she was said to have 
given Cyrus a large sum. AN. τ. 2, 12. τοὺς ἀγαθοὺς εἰς πόλεμον 
ὡμολόγητο διαφερόντως τιμᾶν he was acknowledged to honor ex- 
ceptionally those who were good for war. Av. 1. 9, 14. Kat yap 
οὐδὲ πόρρω δοκοῦμέν μοι αὐτοῦ καθῆσθαι for we seem to me to be 
encamped by no means far from him. Av. τ, ὃ, 12. 

b. Future infinitives with ὥστε fall under this head, 
scarcely differing at all from ὥστε with a future indicative 
(639 a): 

Mopia τηλικαύτην ἡγεῖσθαι πόλιν οἰκεῖν τὸ μέγεθος ὥστε μὴ δει- 
νὸν πείσεσθαι it ts folly to think the state we live in is so 
great that we shall suffer nothing serious. 1). 9, 67. 


An Infinitive with ἄν represents an indicative or 
optative with dv (461, 467, 479, 480), the context alone 
determining which: 

᾿Ακούω Λακεδαιμονίους τότε ἐμβαλόντας ἂν καὶ κα- 
κώσαντας τὴν YOpav ἀναχωρεῖν ἐπ᾽ οἴκου πάλιν ᾽ 
hear that the Spartans in those times, after invading 


ὅ80 


236 SIMPLE SENTENCES 


and ravaging the land, would then withdraw toward 
home again (ἀνεχώρουν av, 461 a). D. 9, 48. Κῦρος 
ἄριστος ἂν δοκεῖ ἄρχων γενέσθαι it seems likely 
that Cyrus would have been an unusually good ruler 
(ἄριστος ἂν ἐγένετο, 467 6). 0.4, 18 dpa αὐτοὺς λέ 
γοντος av τινος πιστεῦσαι οἴεσθε; do you think 
they would have believed any one tf he said it? 
(λέγοντος av τινος ἐπίστευσαν ;) Ῥ. 6, 20. 

Σὺν ὑμῖν μὲν ἂν οἶμαι εἶν αι τἴμιος with you L think 
L should be in honor (τίμιος ἂν εἴην, 479). Α΄. 1. 8, 6. 
ἐπίστευε μηδὲν ἂν Tapa Tas σπονδὰς παθεῖν he was 
confident that he would suffer nothing contrary to the 
agreement (οὐδὲν ἂν πάθοιμι). AN. τ. 9, 8 

a. Some of the above examples illustrate the tendency to 
change original οὐ to μή with the infinitive after words mean- 
ing swear, promise, hope, and the like; the notion of wil] in 
the verb seems to affect the negative. 


For exclamatory and imperative infinitives see 492. 
For farther treatment of indirect discourse see 657-664. 


PARTICIPLES 


The Participle is a verbal adjective, essentially like 
the English participle in use; but its full declension 
enabled the range of the Greek participle to be ex- 
tended much farther in some directions. 


a. Asa verb the participle has voice and tense, and may 
take an object (accusative, genitive, or dative) or an adverbial 
modifier. 

As an adjective it is declined, and agrees with a noun or 
pronoun, (1) attributively, with or without the article, (2) as 
a predicate, belonging to either subject or object. 


ὅ81 


582 


’ PARTICIPLES 237 


The present, aorist, and perfect tenses of the participle denote 
the kind of action rather than time ; the present denotes con- 
tinuance or repetition, the aorist denotes simple occurrence 
or attainment, the perfect denotes a completed act or a con- 
tinued state (cp. 475, 563). 


a. But when a participle represents an indicative clause, 
the tenses retain the tense-meaning of the indicative, and de- 
note time present, past, or future relatively to that of the lead- 
ing verb. The future participle is always so used; for the 
other tenses the context alone determines whether the time- 
value is intended or not (cp. 577). 

Note examples in the following sections. 


The Attributive Participle agrees directly with a noun, 
with or without an article: 

Ta καθεστηκότα mpaypata the existing situa- 
tion (affairs, government). κεκαλλιεπημένους 
λόγους finely worded speeches, Av. 17 b. 


a. The Attributive Participle is often used without a noun, 


thus becoming itself a noun (555 Ὁ). Such ‘a phrase, if brief, ἡ 
may sometimes be rendered by an English noun; if longer, 


its nearest equivalent is a relative clause : 


Oi λέγοντες the speakers, οἱ ἀκούοντες the hearers, oi 
ἐνοικοῦντες the inhabitants, ἡ τεκοῦσα the mother, εἰκῇ 
λεγόμενα things stated carelessly, τὰ αὐτοῖς βεβιωμένα their 
lives (things lived by them), τὰ δόξαντα τῇ στρατιᾷ the opin- 
ton (decision) of the army. AN. τ. 8, 20. 

Οἱ ταύτην τὴν φήμην κατασκεδάσαντες those who have 
spread this report; τοὺς ταῦτα ζητοῦντας those who investi- 
gate these matters. Av. 18 ce. ὦ καταψηφισάμενοί pov you 
who voted against me. Ar. 89 b. 


Ὁ. Common phrases are 6 βουλόμενος any one who wishes, 
ὃ τυχών any chance comer. Note also καλούμενος and λεγόμενος 
in phrases like κρήνη ἡ Μίδου καλουμένη the spring called 


583 


238 SIMPLE SENTENCES 


Midas’s, the so-called spring of Midas; τὸν ἱερὸν καλούμενον 
πόλεμον the war called Sacred, the so-called Sacred war. 


6. With ov such a participial phrase refers to a particular 
person, thing, or class; with μή (486) the phrase is more gen- 
eral, a merely supposed case : 

Tots μὴ πειθομένοις μετέμελε any who did not take his 
advice repented. M.1. 1, 4. (rots οὐ πειθομένοις would have 
meant those people, a definite class, who in fact did not take 
his advice.) 


A. Participle often agrees atiributively with a noun or 
pronoun, without the article, adding some c7ircwm- 
stance of the main action. (Circumstantial Parti- 
ciple.) 

English uses the same construction, but less freely; a 
better rendering is often a relative clause, or an adverbial 
phrase or clause (of time, manner, cause, means, concession, 
condition), or even another verb parallel to the leading verb. 
The circumstantial participle without ἄν represents an indica- 
tive; the tense therefore generally denotes time (581 a). 

Ἢ μήτηρ ὑπῆρξε Κύρῳ φιλοῦσα αὐτὸν μᾶλλον his 
mother supported Cyrus, loving him more, Ax. τ. 1, 4. 
ἀκούσᾶσι τοῖς στρατηγοῖς ταῦτα ἔδοξε τὸ στράτευμα 
συναγαγεῖν on hearing this the generals decided to call 
together the army, Ax. 1. 4, 19. ὁ δὲ ἐλπίδας λέγων 
διῆγε but he kept putting them off by talking hope- 
Sully, Ax.1. 5, τι. πρῶτον μὲν ἐδάκρῦε πολὺν χρόνον 
ἑστώς first he stood and wept for some time. Δ. τ. 
3,2. ταῦτα yap καλῶς ἐγὼ εἰδὼς διώλεσα this, though 
L knew it well, Thad let slip. 8. or. 318. 

a. Certain participles occur often in idiomatic use, as dp- 
χόμενος (beginning) at first, τελευτῶν (ending) finally, ἔχων (hold- 
ing on) constantly, θαρρῶν boldly, λαθών secretly, ἀνύσας quickly, 


PARTICIPLES 239 


χαίρων without punishment, κλαίων with sorrow. Also ἔχων, 


584 


585 


ἄγων, λαβών, φέρων, χρώμενος may often be translated with : 
Τελευτῶν οὖν ἐπὶ τοὺς χειροτέχνᾶς ya 80 finally I went to the 

artisans. Av. 22¢. οὔτι χαίρων δίς ye πημονὰς ἐρεῖς not with- 

out sorrow shalt thow twice speak words so dire. 8. οὐ. 808. 


Πρόξενος παρῆν ἔχων ὁπλίτας Proxenos came with hoplites. 
AN. τὶ 2, 8. 


b. The future participle in this use often expresses inten- 
tion or purpose : 

᾿Ανίσταντο of μὲν ἐκ τοῦ αὐτομάτου λέξοντες ἃ ἐγίγνωσκον 
some rose of their own accord to say what they thought. Av. 1. 
3,13. πέμψαι καὶ προκαταληψομένους τὰ ἄκρα to send men 
to seize the hights in advance. Av. τ. 8, 14. 


Predicate Participles are used like predicate adjec- 
tives (545-548), with extensions into certain special 
idioms. ‘The compound tenses, consisting of εἰμι and 
a participle agreeing with the subject, are the simplest 


type. 


A Predicate Participle agreeing with the sudject is 
often used | 


a. With verbs that express existence i some par- 
ticular way, as 

τυγχάνω am by chance, happen to be, 

havOdvw am secretly or without the knowledge of, 

φθάνω am first, get the start im, 

διάγω, διατελῶ, διαγίγνομαι am continuously, keep on, 

φαίνομαι (also δῆλός or φανερός εἰμι) am plainly : 

Παρὼν ἐτύγχανε he happened to be there, Δ. τ. 1,2. 
ἐτύγχανον λέγων L was just saying. AN. mm. 2, 10. 
βουλοίμην ἂν λαθεῖν αὐτὸν ἀπελθών 7 should like to 
get away without his knowing it (to be-hidden-from him 


240 SIMPLE SENTENCES 


going away). Ax. τ. 3,1% φθάνουσιν ἐπὶ τῷ ἄκρῳ. 
γενόμενοι τοὺς πολεμίους they anticipate the enemy 
in getting upon the hight. Ax. ut 4, 45.: διετέλουν 
χρώμενοι τοῖς τῶν πολεμίων τοξεύμασι they kept 
using the enemies’ arrows, Ay. πι. 4,17 οὐ φθονῶν 
τοῖς φανερῶς πλουτοῦσιν ἐφαίνετο he was plainly not 
envious of the openly wealthy (it was plain that he did 
not envy). AN. 1. 9, 19. 

b. With verbs meaning begin, cease, endure, grow 
weary, and the like: | 

Οὐποτε ἐπαυόμην ἡμᾶς οἰκτίρων L never ceased 
pitying ourselves, Ax. τι. 1, 19. ἀπείρηκα ἤδη συσ- 
κευαζόμενος καὶ τρέχων καὶ τὰ ὅπλα φέρων L 
am tired now of packing up and 4... and carry: 
mg my arms, . AN. v. 1, 2. 

ο. With οἴχομαι an gone a predicate participle may 
specify the manner of going, and so contain the main 
thought : 

Eis τὸ πρόσθεν οἴχονται διώκοντες they have 
gone forward in pursuit, Ax. 1. 10, ὅ, ᾧχετο ἀπελαύ- 
νων he went riding away, or simply, he rode away. 
AN. τι. 4, 24. 


With ἥκω and some others the idioms differ but little from 
English usage. 

d. A Participle agreeing with the subject is so ) used with 
some verbs that one can not say certainly whether it is a cir- 
cumstantial or a predicate participle : 

Τούτου οὐχ ἡττησόμεθα εὖ ποιοῦντες we shall not be behind 
him in well-doing. ΑΝ. τι. 2, 39, ἀδικεῖ rods νέους διαφθείρων 
he is guilty of corrupting the young. Μ. τ. 1,1. So with @ 
number of verbs meaning endure, am pleased, content, indig- 
nant, ashamed, ete. : 


PARTICIPLES 241 


586 A Predicate Participle agreeing with the object is 
often used 

a. With some verbs meaning perceive (with the 
senses or with the mind), vemember, know, and the 
like: 

Eide Κλέαρχον διελαύνοντα he saw Klearchos 
riding through. Ax. 1.5, 13, οὐκ ἤδεσαν αὐτὸν TE Oy n- 
κότα they did not know that he was dead. Avy. τ. 10, 16. 
ἤδη δέ τινων ἠσθόμην καὶ διὰ ταῦτα ἀχθομένων μοι 
and now I have observed that some felt unpleasantly 
toward me for this reason too, 1. 16, 20. ἤκουσά ποτε 
αὐτοῦ περὶ φίλων διαλεγομένου L once heard him 
talking about friends, M.u.4,1. χαίρουσιν ἐξετα- 
ζομένοις τοῖς οἰομένοις μὲν εἶναι σοφοῖς οὖσι δ᾽ ov 
they delight in the examination of those who think they 
are wise but are not. Av. 88 ce. 


b. With verbs meaning show, make known, and the 
like: 

Κῦρον ἐπιστρατεύοντα πρῶτος ἤγγειλα L was 
the first to report that Cyrus was marching against 
him, Avy. π. ὃ, 19. ἐμὲ τοίνυν οὐδεὶς ἂν ἀποδείξειεν 
ἀπενεχθέντα no one, now, could show that my 
name was handed in, 1. 16, 7. 


587 With some verbs a predicate participle may agree with either 
subject or object, according to the meaning (cp. 586) : 


Ἴσθι μέντοι ἀνόητος dv be sure, however, that you are foolish. 
Ay. τι, 1, 13. ἡμεῖς ἀδύνατοι ὁρῶμεν ὄντες περιγενέσθαι we see 
‘that we are unable to get the upper hand. . τ. 82. ἠσθετ᾽ ἠδι- 
κημένη she perceived that she had been wronged. E. om. 26. 
ἐγὼ οὐ ξύνοιδα ἐμαυτῷ σοφὸς dv 7 am not conscious of being wise. 

16 


588᾽ 


589 


242 


AP eis 


SIMPLE SENTENCES 


Cp. ἐμαυτῷ Evvydn οὐδὲν ἐπισταμένῳ 7 was con- 


sctous that I knew nothing (Av. 22 4). with no essential differ- 
ence of meaning, because subject and object are the same 


person. 


a. Most of the above verbs admit also as object a ὅτι clause 


(622). 


b. ᾿Ακούω, αἰσθάνομαι, πυνθάνομαι admit three constructions, 


usually distinct in meaning : 


ἀκούω τινός w. ptc. 7 hear, with my own ears, something 


going on ; 


ἀκούω τι (or τινά) w. pte. 1 hear, am told, that : 
ἀκούω w. acc. and inf. 7 hear, as report, or tradition, 


that : 


6. In like manner several verbs admit either a predicate 
participle or an infinitive, with different meaning : 


WITH PARTICIPLE 
φαίνομαι 1} plainly am, 


ἄρχομαι am at the beginning of, 
αἰδοῦμαι am ashamed of, 
αἰσχύνομαι Ι do with shame, 
γιγνώσκω recognize Ἃ 


ἐπίσταμαι understand | that 
οἶδα know some- 
μανθάνω learn Ἷ thing 
ἐπιλανθάνομαι forget | 18, 


μέμνημαι remember 


WITH INFINITIVE ‘ 
it appears (but may not be 
true) that I——; 
undertake, set about ; 
am ashamed to, refrain for 


shame ; 
decide 
understand how 
know how to do 
learn (how) something. 


forget (how) 
remember 


A Participle may agree with a genitive which is not 
dependent on any other word ; the two are then in 


the Genitive Absolute : 


᾿Ανέβη ἐπὶ τὰ ὄρη οὐδενὸς κωλύοντος he went 


up on the mountains, no one hindering. 


AN. I. 2, 22. 


a. Ἑκών willing and ἄκων unwilling are treated as par- 


ticiples : 


ὅ90 


ὅ91 


PARTICIPLES 243 


“Akovros ἀπιὼν Κύρου going away without Cyrus’s con- 
sent (Cyrus unwilling). Avy. τ. 8, 17. 


In effect the Genitive Absolute is an abbreviated ad- 
verbial clause, of time, cause, condition, concession, or 
merely of attendant circumstance. These relations 
are not stated, but only implied in the context ; often 
one can not say which of two or more relations is 
more prominent : 

Τούτων λεχθέντων ἀνέστησαν this said, they 
rosé. Ay. mu. 3,1. οὐδὲν τῶν δεόντων ποιούντων 
ὑμῶν κακῶς τὰ πρἄγματα ἔχει affairs are in a bad 
way while (because?) you are doing nothing of what 
you should, D. 4,2. καὶ μεταπεμπομένου αὐτοῦ 
οὐκ ἐθέλω ἐλθεῖν even though he is sending for me, I 
am unwilling to go. AN. 1. 8,10. 

a. The Participle may stand alone in the genitive absolute 
when the noun or pronoun is readily supplied from the con- 
text : 

Ἐντεῦθεν προϊόντων ἐφαίνετο ἴχνη ἵππων as they went on 
from there, tracks of horses appeared. Av. τ. 6, 1. 

A Participle may be in the Accusative Absolute instead of the 
genitive, when it is impersonal, or has an infinitive as subject : 

Ἔ ξόν εἰρήνην ἔχειν αἱρεῖται πολεμεῖν when it is possible to 
have peace, he chooses war. Ay. π. 6, 6. οἶσθα, μέλον γέ σοι 
you know, since it is of interest to you. Av. 34 ἃ. So προσῆκον 
since (or though) it is fitting, δόξαν it having been agreed to, 
ἄδηλον ov it being uncertain, τυχόν by chance, and others. 

a. Even personal expressions are sometimes in the accusa- 
tive absolute, especially with ὡς or ὥσπερ (598 ο, d) : 

Σωκράτης ηὔχετο πρὸς τοὺς θεοὺς ἁπλῶς τἀγαθὰ διδόναι, ὡς τοὺς 
θεοὺς κάλλιστα εἰδότας Sokrates used to pray to the gods 
simply to give what was good, feeling that the gods knew best 
(what is good). M. τ, 3, 2, 


592 


593 


244 SIMPLE SENTENCES 


A few adverbs, though belonging grammatically to the verb, 
often stand with and seem to modify a circumstantial par- 
ticiple ; such are ἅμα, μεταξύ, εὐθύς, αὐτίκα, ὅμως : 

"Apa ταῦτ᾽ εἰπὼν ἀνέστη immediately as he said this he 
rose. ΑΝ. m1. 1, 47. πολλαχοῦ pe ἐπέσχε λέγοντα μεταξύ it 
often checked me in the midst of my words (checked me mid- 
way, while speaking). Av. 40 b. εὐθὺς παῖδες ὄντες pavOa- 
vovow ἄρχειν τε καὶ ἄρχεσθαι immediately, while boys, they learn 
both to rule and to be ruled. An. 1.9, 4. ἐρήσομαι δὲ καὶ κακῶς 
πάσχουσ᾽ ὅμως L will ask, though wronged, none the less. 
HK. m. 280. 


Certain particles make more distinct the relation of 
thought between the circumstantial participle and 
the rest of the sentence. 


a. “Ate (less often οἷον, ota) shows that the par- 
ticiple 1s causal : 

"Ent πολὺ Hv τὰ ὑποζύγια, ἅτε διὰ στενῆς τῆς ὁδοῦ 
πορευόμενα the baggage animals extended a long 
way, because the road they were following was narrow. 


AN. Iv. 2, 18. 


b. Καίπερ (also καί, though less distinctly) shows 
that the participle is concessive : 

Οὺς ἐγὼ μᾶλλον φοβοῦμαι ἢ τοὺς ἀμφὶ ἤΑνυτον, 
καΐπερ ὄντας καὶ τούτους δεινούς whom LT fear 
more than Anytos and his friends, although these also 
are formidable, Av. 18 b. 


6. ‘Os with a participle is often rendered by as; 
but the idiom has been extended far beyond what is 
possible in English. In many cases ὡς implies that 
the statement of the participle is the thought of some — 


ὅ94 


PARTICIPLES 245 


one mentioned in the context; the translation must 
vary with the situation : 

Τὴν χώραν ἐπέτρεψε διαρπάσαι τοῖς Ἕλλησιν ὡς 
πολεμίὰν οὖσαν he turned the land over to the Greeks 
to plunder, as being hostile, Ay. τ. 3, 19. συλλαμβάνει 
Κῦρον ὡς ἀποκτενῶν he arrested Cyrus, as intend. 
ing to kill him. Av. 1. 1, 8. 

Ἔλεγε θαρρεῖν ws καταστησομένων τούτων 
εἰς τὸ δέον he told him to have no fear, assuring him 
that this would settle itself properly, Av. 1. 8,8, ἢλ- 
θον ἐπί τινα τῶν δοκούντων σοφῶν εἶναι, ws ἐνταῦθα 
ἐλέγξων τὸ μαντεῖον [ went to one of the men who 
seemed to be wise, thinking that there I should test the 
oracle, Av.2%1¢c. ἐκπίπτοντες παρ᾽ ᾿Αθηναίους ὡς βέ 
βαιον ὃν ἀνεχώρουν when exiled they withdrew to the 
Athenians, with the idea that it was safe there. 7.1. 2. 

ἃ. Ὥσπερ just as, even as (cp. 216) is a strengthened ds, 
but it often requires a different translation : 


"AdXos ἀνέστη ἐπιδεικνὺς τὴν εὐήθειαν τοῦ τὰ πλοῖα αἰτεῖν κελεύον- 
τος, ὥσπερ πάλιν τὸν στόλον Κύρου ποιουμένου another arose, 
pointing out the simplicity of the man who suggested asking for 
boats, just as if Cyrus were making the expedition back again. 
An, 1. 8, 106, κατακείμεθα ὥσπερ ἐξὸν ἡσυχίαν ἄγειν weare lying 
here just as if it were possible to remain quiet. An. πι. 1, 14. 


With some verbs of knowing, thinking, saying, ὡς is used with 
a predicate participle; in some cases a circumstantial parti- 
ciple with ὡς is used where we might expect a predicate par- 
ticiple : 

Ὡς pe στρατηγήσοντα ἐμὲ ταύτην τὴν στρατηγίαν μηδεὶς 
ὑμῶν λεγέτω let no one of you speak with the idea that I will 
retain command in this campaign (591 a). AN. τ. 8, 15. δηλοῖς 
δ᾽ ὥς τι σημανῶν νέον you show that you have something new 


595 


596 


246 SIMPLE SENTENCES 


to reveal (you show as one about to reveal). 8. AN. 349, ὡς πο- 
λέμου ὄντος Tap ὑμῶν ἀπαγγελῶ shall 1 report from you that 
there is war? (shall I report with the understanding that there 
28 war?). ΑΝ. I. 1, 21. 

A Participle with ἄν represents an optative or indica- 
tive with av, the context alone determining which 
(cp. 579): 

Airet ξένους, ὡς οὕτω περιγενόμενος ἂν τῶν 
ἀντιστασιωτῶν he asks for mercenaries, saying that 
thus he should get the better of his opponents (repre- 
senting περιγενοίμην av). Ay.1. 1,10. Σωκράτης pa- 
dios ἂν ἀφεθεὶς ὑπὸ τῶν δικαστῶν προείλετο ἀπο- 
θανεῖν Sokrates, who would easily have been acquitted 
by the gudges, chose to die, M. τν. 4, 4. 


VERBAL ADJECTIVES IN -TEOS 


The Verbal in -réos (cp. 352, 354) 1s generally passive 
in meaning; it may be used in the personal or the 
impersonal construction; the agent in either construc- 
tion is expressed by a dative (524 b). 

a. The personal construction gives more promi- 
nence to the subject, with which the verbal agrees, 
as attributive or as predicate; the copula is often 
omitted : 

"Epol τοῦτο ov ποιητέον this must not be done 
by mé. Ax. τ. 3,15. οὐ τοσαῦτα ὄρη ὁρᾶτε ὑμῖν ὄντα 
mopevtéa; do you not see so many mountains that 
must be traversed by you? Avy. τι. 5, 18. 

b. The impersonal construction gives more promi- 
nence to the action; the verbal is in the neuter sin- 


597 


598 


PREPOSITIONS 947 


gular (sometimes in the plural), and may take an 
object; the copula is often omitted : 

Ἡμῖν γ᾽ ὑπὲρ τῆς ἐλευθερίας ἀγωνιστέον we at 
least must make a struggle for freedom. D.9, ἴθ. ἰτέον 
οὖν ἐπὶ ἅπαντας τούς τι δοκοῦντας εἰδέναι 7 had to go 
therefore (the context shows that ἦν is understood) fo 
all those who appeared to have some knowledge. Av. 31 ο. 
τοὺς φίλους εὐεργετητέον, τῶν βοσκημάτων ἐπι- 
μελητέον one must benefit his friends, one must care 
for his flocks. M. τι. 1, 28. 


ec. Some verbals in -réos have the meaning of the middle 
voice: πειστέον one must obey, φυλακτέον we must be on our 


guard. 
PREPOSITIONS 


All Prepositions were once adverbs; Homer uses them as such 
freely, the Attic poets occasionally ; in Attic prose πρός alone 
is so used (cp. 487 a). But their special office, along with 
their use in composition (487, 440 a), is to connect nouns or 
pronouns with other words, making the relation plainer than 
the case ending would alone. 


a. The details of the use and meaning of prepositions are 
best learned from reading, and from vocabularies and the dic- 
tionary; some of the chief distinctions only are given here. 
᾿Ανά, eis or és (and as) take the Accusative ; 

Ἔν and σύν take the Dative only ; 

᾿Αντί, ἀπό, ἐξ, and πρό take the Genitive only ; 

Aud, κατά, μετά, ὑπέρ take the Accusative and 
Genitive ; 

"Api, ἐπί, παρά, περί, πρός, ὑπό take the Accusa- 
tive, Genitive, and Dative. 

a. A preposition joined to a verb may affect the case of a 
noun or pronoun precisely as if it were not in composition. 


ὅ99 


600 


248 COMPOUND SENTENCES 


b. The meaning of the noun or pronoun, or of the verb, 

often determines the meaning of the preposition; a relation 
that is natural in one situation may be impossible in another. 
This principle has a wide application. Thus: εἰς τὸν ποταμόν 
into the river, εἰς ἄνδρας ἐγγράφειν to enroll among men, εἰς dvva- 
μιν to the extent of one’s power, εἰς tpraxovra to the number of 
thirty ; ὑπὸ γῆς under ground, ὑφ᾽ ἡμῶν τιμώμενος honored by us ; 
παρὰ τὸν ποταμόν alongside of the river, παρὰ βασιλέα to the 
king’s side. 
Besides the prepositions proper (i. e., those which may be 
compounded with verbs), a number of adverbs are often 
used with the genitive, and hence are called improper preposi- 
tions. Such are ἄνευ without, ἄχρι and μέχρι as far as, μεταξύ 
between, πλήν except, ἕνεκα (εἵνεκα, ἕνεκεν) On account of, ἐγγύς 
and πλησίον near, etc. (cp. 518 b, c). 


II. COMPOUND SENTENCES 


Successive independent sentences in Greek are usu- 
ally jomed together in one of four ways: 

(1) By a coérdinating conjunction ; 

(2) By a demonstrative pronoun or adverb; this 
may be in the earlier sentence, pointing forward, or 
in the latter, pointing backward ; 

(3) By a relative pronoun or adverb, at the begin- 
ning of the second sentence ; 

(4) By a particle standing early in the second 
sentence, and referring to the preceding sentence. 


a. Absence of such a connective (dovvderov not bound 
together, asyndeton), though so common in English, is gener- 
ally in Greek a mark of emotion. Thus the following passage 
(L. 12, 100) shows far more feeling than the English version: 
ἀκηκόατε, éwpaxare, πεπόνθατε, ἔχετε: δικάζετε you have heard, seen, 
suffered, you have him; give judgment. 


601 


602 


603 


COMPOUND SENTENCES 249 


Ὁ. Repetition of some significant word (avapopa anaphora), 
with asyndeton, is an emotional way of connecting sentences: 

Τί οὖν ἐστι τοῦτο; ἀπιστίᾷά. ταύτην φυλάττετε, ταύτης ἀντέ- 
χεσθε what, then, is this? Distrust. Guard this, cling to 
ae, =D. 6, 24. 


When successive sentences, independent in construc- 
tion, are jomed by a coérdinating conjunction, and 
are so united in speaking as to make one, the whole 
is called a Compound Sentence. 


The principal codrdinating conjunctions are the following ; 
details of their use and meaning are to be learned in reading; 
nearly all have other uses too (cp. 665-673). 

a. Copulative Conjunctions: καί, re (enclitic) and; οὐδέ, 
poe, ovre, μήτε and not,nor. Kat... καί, τε... καί both... 
and, οὔτε... οὔτε, μήτε. . . μήτε neither... nor, are fre- 
quent combinations. 

Ὁ. Adversative Conjunctions: ἀλλά but, δέ (postpositive) 
but, and, ἀτάρ but, however, μέντοι (postpositive) however, yet, 
καίτοι and yet. 

e. Disjunctive Conjunction: 707. 7... netther... or, 
is a frequent combination. 

ἃ. Inferential Conjunctions: dpa then, accordingly, as wt 
seems; οὖν therefore, then; νυν or νῦν (enclitic and poetic), roé- 
νυν unemphatic now, then (cp. 679). 


e. Causal Conjunction: ydp for (cp. 672). 


Instead of a full compound sentence, a sentence with a com- 
pound subject or a compound predicate may be used (Addre- 
viated Compound Sentence) : 

Ὁ δὲ πείθεται καὶ συλλαμβάνει Κῦρον he believed τέ 
and arrested Cyrus. ΔΝ. τ. 1,3. ἐπαξίως γὰρ Φοῖβος, ἀξίως δὲ 
σὺ πρὸ τοῦ θανόντος τήνδ᾽ ἔθεσθ᾽ ἐπιστροφήν for right worthily 
hath Phoibos, and worthily hast thou, bestowed this care for 
him that is dead. 8. ov, 188 f. 


604 


605 


606 


250 COMPLEX SENTENCES 


PARATAXIS AND HYPOTAXIS 


When two sentences, independent in form, are so united in 
speaking that one is subordinate to the other in thought, they 
are called Paratactic! (παρατάσσω arrange beside). In form, 
as written, they are simply codrdinate sentences not joined 
together by a conjunction : 

"Exiotacbe καὶ ὑμεῖς, οἶμαι you know it yourselves, I think. 
AN, πι. 2, 8, ἥδιστ᾽ ἂν ἀκούσαιμι τὸ ὄνομα, Tis οὕτως ἐστὶ δεινὸς 
λέγειν; I should like very much to hear the name, who is so 
skilled in talking? An. τι. 5, 15. εὖ μέντοι ἴστε, πᾶσαν ὑμῖν τὴν 
ἀλήθειαν ἐρῶ be assured, however, 1 shall tell you the whole truth. 
Ap. 30 ἃ. ἱκνοῦμαι μὴ προδοὺς ἡμᾶς γένῃ do not abandon us, 1 
entreat. S. a1. ὅ88. 


Out of such paratactic sentences have grown all types of Sud- 
ordination, or Hypotaxis (ὑποτάσσω arrange under). A sen- 
tence is Subordinate when it is made part of another, with the 
value of a noun, adjective, or adverb. 


11. COMPLEX SENTENCES 


A Complex Sentence consists of a principal sentence 
and one or more subordinate sentences, which are 
then called clauses. 

a. The Principal or Leading clause may be of any 
type of simple sentence (451-489). 

b. A Subordinate clause is marked 

(1) Always by an introductory subordinating 
word ; 

(2) Often by a change of mode ; 

(3) Sometimes by a change of person, in verb 
and pronoun ; 


1 Such sentences are even more common in English of familiar style 
than in Greek literature as we have it. 


607 


608 


609 


610 


M4 CLAUSES 951 


(4) Sometimes by a change of tense ; but onky in 
the indicative, from present to imperfect or from per- 
fect to pluperfect.' 

6, A direct quotation, or an indirect question that retains 


the direct form, though clearly subordinate, can hardly be 
separated from cases of parataxis (604). 


The tenses in subordinate clauses have the same force 
as in simple sentences ; but when they denote time, 
their time is often merely relative to that of the lead- 
ing clause. 


Since the introductory subordinating word is what 
always and most clearly marks the subordinate clause, 
that is made the basis for classifying and describing 
such clauses. 


Three functions, in the following order of development, may 
belong to a subordinating word : 

(1) It has its own construction in the subordinate clause, 
as adverb, pronoun, or adjective. 

(2) It connects the subordinate clause Δ ἢ some word, 
expressed or implied, in the leading clause. 

(3) Both these functions fall into the background, and 
one or both may disappear, as the subordinating word comes 
more distinctly to denote the relation of clause to clause, 
rather than of word to word. 


My CLAUSES 


My (cp. 486) is often a subordinating conjunction 
(lest, that, that not) after expressions of fear or caution, 


1In English, change of order is often the only sign of subordination ; 
so sometimes change of tense. 


611 


952 COMPLEX SENTENCES 


and sometimes after expressions of preventive action — 
implying caution. (Negative od. Cp. also 474.) 


In Μή clauses 

a. An indicative (present, perfect, imperfect, ao- 
rist) denotes something present or past: 

Δέδοικα μὴ πληγῶν δέει L’m afraid you need 
a whipping. Ax. ν. 493. φοβούμεθα μὴ ἀμφοτέρων 
ἡμαρτήκαμεν we fear that we have failed of both. 
T. mi. 58. 

b. A subjunctive (rarely the future indicative) de- 
notes something still future, or treated as unsettled : 

᾿Οκνοίην ἂν εἰς τὰ πλοῖα ἐμβαίνειν, wn ἡμᾶς κατα- 
δύσῃ L should hesitate to go aboard the boats, lest 
he sink us, Δν. τ. ὃ, 17. δεδιὼς μὴ λαβών pe δίκην 
ἐπιθῇ fearing that he will take and punish me. Ax. 
1.8, 10. Opa μὴ ἅμα τῷ κακῷ Kal αἰσχρὰ ἢ beware 
lest it be (see that τέ be not) shameful too as well as 
evil, Cr. 46a παῦσαι, μὴ ἐφευρεθῇς ἄνους Stop, 
that you be not found foolish. 5. ax. 281. 

Note that lest and that not are often equivalent. In the 
last example we might say lest you be found ; μὴ οὐ ἐφευρεθῇς 
would be lest you be not found—the negative of μὴ ἐφευρεθῇς. 

e. An optative denotes something future or treated 
as unsettled at the time of the principal verb, and 
also presents it as more remote from the speaker or 
writer—e. g., as the thought of another person, or as 
belonging to a past or an improbable situation. 

The optative is therefore common after a past tense 
and after another optative, but is otherwise rare: 


612 


613 


"Os AND Ὅστις CLAUSES 958 


Ἔδεισαν ot Ἕλληνες μὴ προσάγοιεν πρὸς τὸ 
κέρας the Greeks feared they would advance on their 
flank, Ax. 1. 10, 9. ἐδόκει ἀπιέναι ἐπὶ τὸ στρατόπεδον 
μὴ ἐπίθεσις γένοιτο rt scemed best to go back to the 
camp, lest an attack should be made. Ax. 1. 4, 38. λέγε- 
Tat εἰπεῖν ὅτι ἀπιέναι βούλοιτο, μὴ ὁ πατήρ τι ay- 
θοιτο he is said to have remarked that he wished to 
depart, lest his father should be veat. 0.1. 4, 2%. 


“Os AND Ὅστις CLAUSES 


The Relative Pronoun ὅς (218) connects its clause with 
some noun or pronoun, and has its own construction 
in the subordinate clause. (So of its compounds 
ὅσπερ, ὅστις, etc.) 

a. The connecting force of os may be no stronger than 
that of a demonstrative. The ὅς clause is then really inde- 
pendent. 

When clearly subordinate, the os clause often precedes 


the leading clause, or may be included within it. 


a. The Relative Pronouns take their gender, number, 
and person from the antecedent; but sense may pre- 
vail over form, and when the relative is the subject 
a predicate noun sometimes prevails over the ante- 
cedent. 

b. The Relative is often attracted from its proper 
case to the case of the antecedent, especially from the 
accusative to the genitive or dative: 

"Avdpes ἀξιοι τῆς ἐλευθερίας ἧς κέκτησθε men 
worthy of the freedom which you possess, Δι. 1. 7, 8. 
φοβοίμην ἂν τῷ ἡγεμόνι ᾧ Soin ἕπεσθαι L should 


614 


254 COMPLEX SENTENCES 


fear to follow the guide whom he may give. Ax. 
8, 17. 

6. Rarely the antecedent is attracted to the case of the 
relative, the two standing side by side: 


᾿Ανεῖλεν αὐτῷ ὃ ᾿Απόλλων θεοῖς οἷς ἔδει θύειν Apollo in re, 
sponse told him the gods to whom he should sacrifice. Av. 
17.4, 6: 

d. The antecedent may be taken up into the subordinate 
clause, ὅς agreeing with it adjectively : 

Τούτους ἄρχοντας ἐποίει ἧς κατεστρέφετο χώρᾶς these he made 


rulers of the territory which (of what territory) he subdued. 
AN, 1. 9, 14. 


The antecedent may be omitted; it is often indefinite and 
therefore not expressed ; it may none the less attract the rela- 
tive from the accusative to the genitive or dative (613 b): 

Νῦν ἐπαινῶ σε ἐφ᾽ οἷς λέγεις τε Kal πρᾶττεις now 1 praise you 
for what you both say and do. Ἀν. τι. 1, 45. ἃ μὴ οἶδα οὐδὲ 
οἴομαι εἰδέναι what I do not know, 1 also do not think I know. 
Ap. 21d. ἐμμένομεν οἷς ὡμολογήσαμεν δικαίοις οὖσιν ἢ οὔ; dO we 
abide by what we agreed was just, or not? Cr. 50 ἃ. 


a. From the customary omission of the antecedent have 
arisen some common idiomatic expressions : 


εἰσὶν οἵ, more often some, literally there are who, 
ἔστιν οἵ (ὧν, οἷς, οὖς, ἃ) etc. 

ἔστιν ὅστις ; (interrogative) is there any one who? 

ἐνίοτε (from ἔνι ὅτε) sometimes, 

ἔστιν οὗ somewhere, 

ἔστιν 7 in some way, 

οὐκ ἔστιν ὅπως there is no way how. 


Ὁ. With these may be put οὐδεὶς ὅστις οὐ there is no one 
who... not; through omission of the verb and the attrac- 
tion of the antecedent to the case of the relative (613 6). the 
phrase is treated as a single pronoun meaning every one, and 
is then declined: 


615 


616 


"Os AND “Ὅστις CLAUSES 255 


Οὐδένα ὅντιν᾽ οὐ κατέκλασε he broke down every one. 

Pu. 117 ἃ, 
A Ὅς Clause may take any form that is used in simple sen- 
tences (451-489). It may suggest cause, purpose, concession, 
and other relations. The negative is οὐ or μή according to 
the meaning : 

Τοιούτους ἐπιπέμπουσί μοι, οἷς ὑμεῖς οὐκ ἂν δικαίως πισ- 
τεύοιτε they send against me such people, whom you would 
not justly believe. L. 7, 40. ὃ μὴ γένοιτο which heaven forbid 
(may which not happen!). ἔδοξε τῷ δήμῳ τριάκοντα ἄνδρας ἑλέ- 
σθαι, οἵ τοὺς πατρίους νόμους συγγράψουσι, καθ᾽ ovs πολϊῖτεύ- 
σουσι the people voted to choose thirty men to codify the ances- 
tral laws, in accordance with which they should conduct the 
government. H. τι. 38,2. ποταμόν, dv μὴ περάσῃς a river, 
which do not thou pass. A. pp. 744. πλάνην φράσω, ἣν eyypa- 
pov ov μνήμοσιν δέλτοις φρενῶν 7 will tell thy wandering, which 
do thou write in the tablets of thy memory. A. pp. 815. 

a. Instead of repeating a relative in a different case in the 
same sentence, Greek usually changes to a demonstrative or 
personal pronoun, or leaves the relative to be supplied : 

Ξενοφῶν, ὃς οὔτε στρατηγὸς οὔτε στρατιώτης ὧν συνηκολού- 
θει, ἀλλὰ ἹΠρόξενος αὐτὸν μετεπέμψατο Nenophon, who was 
with them neither as general nor as soldier, but Proxenos had 
sent for him. ΑΝ. 11. 1, 4. 


In “Os Clauses that differ in form from simple sen- 
tences, 

a. A subjunctive (with av, which is sometimes 
omitted in poetry, rarely in prose) describes a sup- 
posed or assumed case, which may or may not’be real. 
The time is future, or present in the generalized sense 
(i. 6., applying to present, past, and future alike). 
The subjunctive is especially common when the ante- 
cedent is indefinite : 


256 COMPLEX SENTENCES 


Ὁ ἀνὴρ πολλοῦ ἄξιος φίλος ᾧ ἂν φίλος ἢ the man is 
a valuable friend to any one to whom he is a friend 
(generalized present). Ay. τ ὃ, 19. τῷ ἀνδρὶ dv ἂν 
ἕλησθε πείσομαι L will obey the man whom you 
choose (in the fvture), Ax. 13,15. ὦ μακάριοι δῆτα 
ot ἂν ὑμῶν ἐπίδωσι τὴν πασῶν ἡδίστην ἡμέραν O 
blessed, therefore, whoever among you shall behold that 
sweetest day of all! Η. τι. 4, 17. 

Τῶν πημονῶν μάλιστα λύποῦσ᾽ at φαν ὥσ᾽ αὐθαίρετοι those 
griefs give most pain that are seen to be self-chosen. 8. οὐ. 1281. 
δέδοικα μὴ οὐκ ἔχω ἱκανοὺς ots δῶ 7 fear 1 shall not have enough 
people to whom to give. Ἀν. τ. 7, 7. 

b. An optative (without av) describes an assumed 
case, but as more remote in thought from the speaker ; 
e.g., as the thought of another person, or as part of a 
past or imaginary or improbable situation. The time 
is future, or present in the generalized sense, with ref- 
erence to the time of the main verb. The optative is 
especially common after a past tense, and when the 
antecedent is indefinite, or the assumed situation is 
thought of as having occurred repeatedly : 

᾿Απήγγελλον οἱ πρέσβεις ἐφ᾽ οἷς ot Λακεδαιμόνιοι 
ποιοῖντο τὴν εἰρήνην the envoys reported on what. 
terms the Spartans offered to make the peace, Ἡ. τι. 2, 22. 
πρότερον οὐκ ἔχων πρόφασιν ἐφ᾽ ἧς τοῦ βίου λόγον 
δοίην, νῦνὶ εἴληφα whereas before I had no pretet 


1 Others explain this differently. But ep. Goodwin, Moods and Tenses, 
538-540. Both in relative clauses and in εἰ clauses with the subjunctive ἄν 
is omitted regularly in Homer, often in Attic poets, and certainly sometimes 
in Attic prose. In this example & would have been natural; the omis- 
sion does not change the meaning. Cp. also 621 a. 


¥ 


| 


617 


618 


“Os AND “Ὅστις CLAUSES 257 


on which to give an account of my life, now 7 have 
got one. 1. 24, 1. 

Ὀκνοίην ἂν εἰς τὰ πλοῖα ἐμβαίνειν ἃ ἡμῖν Κῦρος 
δοίη L should hesitate to go aboard any boats given 
by Cyrus (supposing him to give any). AN. 1 8, 17. 
ἀλλ᾽ ὃν πόλις oT HO ELE, τοῦδε χρὴ κλύειν but whom- 
soever the state appoints, him we should obey. 5... an. 666. 

᾿Αεὶ πρὸς ᾧ εἴη ἔργῳ; τοῦτο ἔπρᾶττεν always, at 

whatsoever task he was, that he strictly pursued, Η. w. 
8, 22. 
In place of a subjunctive or optative in ds clauses one could 
in any instance use the indicative. This merely left unex- 
pressed (except by the context, which is usually enough, as in 
English) the suggestion conveyed by the other modes : 

“A μὴ οἶδα, οὐδὲ οἴομαι εἰδέναι what I do not know, neither 
do I think I know. Av. 31 ἃ. (Here μή shows that the ex- 
pression is general—whatever, at any time, I do not know.) 

Οὐδ᾽ ἔνι φροντίδος ἔγχος ᾧ τις ἀλέξεται nor ts there any 
weapon of thought wherewith to defend (wherewith one shall 
defend). 8. or. 170. 

Tlapov μοι μὴ θανεῖν ὑπὲρ σέθεν, ἀλλ᾽ ἄνδρα σχεῖν Θεσσάλων ὃν 
ἤθελον though it was in my power not to die for you, but to 
get as husband whom I would of the Thessalians. ᾿ Ἐν at. 285. 
(Alkestis had no one man in mind; the expression is general.) 


Ὅστις Clauses take all the forms of Ὅς Clauses (615, 


_ 616), and the modes have the same force. But though 
_ the antecedent is usually indefinite, the indicative (617) 


is more frequent than in Ὅς Clauses: 

a. Subjunctive: dads δὲ τραχὺς ὅστις ἂν νέον 
κρατῇ and every one is harsh that’s new in power. 
A. pp. 35. σὺν ὑμῖν ὃ τι ἂν δέῃ πείσομαι with you 7 


will suffer whatever we must. AN. 1. 3, 5. 
17 | 


258 COMPLEX SENTENCES 


Without av: καλόν τοι γλῶσσ᾽ ὅτῳ πιστὴ παρῇ Ut ts a fine 
thing, whoever has a trusty tongue. . 1. 1064. 

b. Optative: οὕστινας χρείη ἄρχειν παρήγ- 
γελλον they gave orders what men should hold office. 
L. 12, 44. αἰσχρὸν ὕμιν καὶ ἡντινοῦν [ δίκην] ἀπολιπεῖν 
ἡντινά τις βούλοιτο παρὰ τούτων λαμβάνειν at is 
shameful for you that any (penalty) whatever should 
be lacking which any one might wish to exact from these 
men. 1. 12,84 (Here the optative hightens to the 
utmost the inclusiveness of the expression—the most 
unlikely wish could not go too far.) 

6. Indicative where subjunctive or optative would have 
been appropriate : 

Ὅστις ζῆν ἐπιθυμεῖ, πειράσθω νικᾶν whoever is eager to 
live, let him try to conquer. ΑΝ. τι. 2, 89, παρέσχον ἐμαυτὸν ὅ 
τι βούλεσθε χρῆσθαι L offered myself for you to treat in 
whatever way you will. L. 7, 40. 


619 Ὅστις with an indicative often suggests cause, purpose, or 


620 


result, by treating a definite antecedent as indefinite in order 
to characterize it (generally of persons) : 

Ti τὸν θεοῖς ἔχθιστον οὐ στυγεῖς θεόν, ὅστις TO σὸν θηντοῖσι 
προύδωκεν γέρας why dost thou not hate this god, to gods most 
hateful, one who betrayed thy prize to men? A. ΡΒ. 38. 

Πρεσβείαν πέμπειν ἥτις ταῦτ᾽ ἐρεῖ to send an embassy to 
ἘΠ thts.) Diclye: 

Tis οὕτω μαίνεται ὅστις οὐ βούλεταί σοι φίλος εἶναι who ts 
so mad as not to wish to be your friend? Avy. τι. 5, 12. 


OTHER RELATIVE CLAUSES 


Like Ὅς and Ὅστις Clauses, in construction and in 
the use of modes, are Clauses introduced by the other 
Relative Pronouns, 6, ὅσος, οἷος, ἡλίκος, ὁπόσος, ὁποῖος, 


621 


OTHER RELATIVE CLAUSES 259 


ὁπηλίκος, ὁπότερος (227), or by the Relative Adverbs 
ov, ὅθεν, ot, ἣ, ὅπου, ὁπόθεν, ὅποι, ὅπῃ, or by ἔνθα, ἔνθεν, 
when these are relative (286) : 

Δεῦρό po φώνει βλέπων ὅσ᾽ av σ᾽ ἐρωτῶ look 
this way and answer whatever I ask you, 8. ov. 1122. 
σὺν ὑμῖν μὲν ἂν οἶμαι εἶναι τίμιος ὅπου ἂν ὦ With 
you 1 think I should be in honor wherever I am. 
AN. 1. 8, 6. 

Ὅσων ψαύοιμι πάντων τῶνδ᾽ ἀεὶ μετειχέτην all 
that I touched, this they always both shared. 8. ov. 1464. 
ὅπου μὲν στρατηγὸς σῶς εἴη, τὸν στρατηγὸν παρε- 
κάλουν, ὁπόθεν δὲ οἴχοιτο, τὸν ὑποστράτηγον 
wherever a general was safe, they invited the general, 
and from whatever division he was gone, the second in 
command, Av. ut. 1, 32. 

Ἔν τῇ Κύρου ἀρχῇ ἐγένετο ἀδεῶς πορεύεσθαι ὅπῃ τι; ἤθελεν 
in Cyrus’s province it became possible to travel fearlessly wher- 


ever one wished. AN. 1. 9, 13. κρύψω τόδ᾽ ἔγχος ἔνθα μή τις 
ὄψεται 7 will hide this sword where none shall see it. 8. at. 659. 


a. “Ocos and οἷος are often exclamatory, with no antecedent 
expressed ; the clause then has the form of a simple sentence. 
ἡλίκος and other relatives are sometimes so used : 


"Ocos παρ᾽ ὑμῖν ὁ φθόνος φυλάσσεται how great the envy 
that is stored with you! 8. or. 882. οἷόν p ἀκούσαντ᾽ ἀρτίως 
ἔχει Wixns πλάνημα what wandering of soul, at hearing this 
Just now, possesses me! 8. or. 726. 


The general relatives, ὅστις, ὁπόσος, etc. (227), and ὅπου, ὁπόθεν, 
etc. (236), are also indirect interrogatives, used in quoted 
questions. The direct interrogatives (227, 236) are also used 
in indirect questions. 

Such clauses have the form of a simple sentence; but 
when they depend on a historical tense (246), an indicative or 


622 


260 COMPLEX SENTENCES 


subjunctive of the direct form may be changed to the opta- 
tive. 

Ὅ τι ὑμεῖς πεπόνθατε οὐκ οἷδα how you have been affected 
(what you have experienced) I do not know. Av. 17 ἃ. ὅποίοις 
λόγοις ἔπεισε Κῦρον ἄλλῃ γέγραπται by what arguments he con- 
vinced Cyrus has been written elsewhere. AN. τι. 6, 4. οὐκ ἔχω 
σόφισμ᾽ ὅτῳ ἀπαλλαγῶ I have no device whereby 1 shall escape. 
A. PB. 487. (Direct : τίνι σοφίσματι ἀπαλλαγῶ; 471.) 

Ὅμοιοι ἦσαν θαυμάζουσιν ὅποι ποτὲ τρέψονται οἱ Ἕλληνες 
καὶ τί ἐν νῷ ἔχοιεν they were like people who wondered whither 
the Greeks would turn and what they had in mind. Avy. 
1. 5, 18. 

a. By omission of the antecedent, ὅς and the other simple 
relatives become sometimes in effect indirect interrogatives : 

Eide μήποτε γνοίης Os εἶ mayst thou never learn who thow 
art. 8. or. 1068. | 

Perhaps δέδοικα μὴ οὐκ ἔχω ἱκανοὺς ots δῶ (AN. τ. 7, 7) also 
belongs here, because μὴ οὐκ ἔχω ὅ τι δῶ, a quoted dubitative 
subjunctive (471), stands just before, in the same sentence. 
Cp. 615 a, foot-note. 


Ὅτι, Διότι, AND Οὕνεκα CLAUSES 


Ὅτι, the neuter of ὅστις, becomes a subordinating 
conjunction (that) after many words of thinking, 
saying, and the like; it mtroduces quoted words or 
thoughts, those of another or of the speaker, as an 
object, subject, or appositive clause : 

᾿Ἐννοησάτω ὅτι πανταχοῦ ταῦτα γίγνεται let him 
reflect that this happens everywhere. Η. τι. 8, 34. τοῦτο 
γιγνώσκων, ὅτι ἥδ᾽ ἐστὶν ἡ σῴζουσα recognizing 
this, that tt ts she (the state) that saves us. 8. an. 188, 
ἔλεγον ὅτι Κῦρος τέθνηκεν they said that Cyrus 
was dead, Ax. 1. 1, 8. 


623 


624 


“Ὅτι, Διότι, AND Οὔνεκα CLAUSES 261 


a. Ὅτι also introduces subject and appositive clauses of 
the same kind after δῆλόν ἐστι tt is plain, εἰκός ἐστι it is 
probable, and the like; these clauses are treated as quoted 
thoughts: 

Δῆλον ὅτι παύσομαι ὅ ye ἄκων ποιῶ tt is plain that 1 shall 
stop doing what I do unintentionally. Av. 36 ἃ, ἄλλως γνωσ- 
τὸν ὅτι ἀληθῆ λέγω on other grounds it may be perceived that 
7 tell the truth. 4H. τι. 8, 44. 

Ὁ. Ὅτι has also the force of in that and because; in these 
senses it may introduce any form of the indicative sentence 
or of the hypothetical optative (479) : 

Ta μὲν ἄλλα ὀρθῶς ἤκουσας: ὅτι δὲ Kal ἐμὲ οἴει εἰπεῖν τοῦτο, 
παρήκουσας the rest you heard rightly ; but in that you suppose 
I too said this, you heard wrongly. Pr. 330 e. αἰσχυνόμενος 
ὅτι σύνοιδα ἐμαυτῷ ἐψευσμένος αὐτόν ashamed because I am 
conscious of having deceived him. Αν. τ. 8, 10. μὴ θαυμάζετε 
ὅτι χαλεπῶς φέρω do not be surprised that I feel badly. ΑΝ. 1. 
8,3. τί wor οὖν τῶν ἐμοὶ πεπραγμένων οὐχὶ μέμνηται; OTL τῶν 
ἀδικημάτων ἂν ἐμέμνητο τῶν αὑτοῦ why, pray, has he not men- 
tioned my acts? Because he would have mentioned his own 
wrong-doings. 1). 18, 79. 

c. A ὅτι clause often precedes its leading clause : 

Ὅτι ἀδικεῖσθαι νομίζει ὑφ᾽ ἡμῶν οἶδα that he thinks him- 
self wronged by us Lam sure. An. τ. 3, 10. 

A quotation introduced by ὅτι may retain its original form, as 
a simple, compound, or complex sentence (direct quotation) ; 
ὅτι is then merely a mark of quotation, not to be translated : 

Ὡς ἀποφανῶν τῷ χρησμῷ ὅτι “οὑτοσὶ ἐμοῦ σοφώτερός ἐστι, σὺ 
δ᾽ ἐμὲ ἔφησθα" thinking that I should show to the oracle, “ This 
man here is wiser than I, but you said I was.” Av. 21 6. 


a. An Indirect Quotation with ὅτι usually retains the 
tense and mode of the direct form: 

Φανερῶς εἶπεν ὅτι ἡ μὲν πόλις σφῶν τετείχισ- 
ται ἤδη he said openly that their city was already 


625 


262 COMPLEX SENTENCES 


walled. 1.1.91. τοῦτο καλῶς ἠπίσταντο, ὅτι ἄλλως 
μὲν οὐχ οἷοί τε ἔσονται περιγενέσθαι they knew this 
well, that otherwise they would be unable to get the 
upper hand, 1. 12, 45. 

b. But after a historical tense an optative may 
stand in the indirect form for an indicative or sub- 
junctive of the direct form: 

Κῦρος ἔλεγεν ὅτι ἡ ὁδὸς ἔσοιτο πρὸς βασιλέα 
Cyrus said that their march would be (direct, ἔσται) 
against the king. Δι. τ. 4,11. ἔλεγον ὅτι Κῦρος μὲν 
τέθνηκεν ᾿Αριαῖος δὲ πεφευγὼς εἴη καὶ λέγοι ὅτι 
ταύτην μὲν τὴν ἡμέρᾶν περιμενοῖεν αὐτούς, τῇ δὲ 
ἄλλῃ ἀπιέναι φαίη they said that Cyrus was dead 
(direct, τέθνηκε), and that Ariaios had fled (πεφευγώς 
ἐστι, πέφευγε), and said (λέγει or ἔλεγε) that during 
this day he would wait for them (the messenger said 
περιμενεῖ, Ariaios said περιμενῶ), and that he declared 
(ἔφη) that on the neat day he would depart, Ax. u. 1, 8. 


Note that a pres. opt. may represent the imperfect indice. ; 
but the change to the optative is never made when it could 
cause ambiguity. 

c. Sometimes a present or perfect indicative of the direct 
form is changed to an imperfect or pluperfect in the indirect, 
as is usual in English : 

Ἔν πολλῃ ἀπορίᾳ ἦσαν οἱ Ἕλληνες, ἐννοούμενοι μὲν OTL ἐπὶ ταῖς 
βασιλέως θύραις ἧσαν, προυδεδώκεσαν δὲ αὐτοὺς καὶ οἱ βάρβα- 
po the Greeks were in great difficulty, reflecting that they were 
at the king’s gates (direct, ἐπὶ ταῖς θύραις ἐσμέν), and that the 
barbarians also had abandoned them (ἡμᾶς προδεδώκασι). ΑΝ. 
ἘΠῚ πῶ, 


By the omission of verbs arise expressions like δῆλον ὅτι evi- 
dently, otS ὅτι Lam sure, surely, οὐχ ὅτι (for οὐκ ἐρῶ ὅτι) not 


626 


627 


CLAUSES WITH “Ore, ᾿Εἰπεί, ETC. 263 


merely, μὴ ὅτι (for μὴ εἴπω, εἴπῃς, ὑπολάβῃς ὅτι) not to say, not 
only. 
Διότι (for διὰ ὅτι) wherefore, because, that, is used like ὅτι, often 


in the sense of because, sometimes in the sense of that. οὕνεκα 
(for οὗ ἕνεκα) wherefore, that, is used like ὅτι in poetic style : 

‘Ervyxave ἐφ᾽ ἁμάξης πορευόμενος διότι ἐτέτρωτο it hap- 
pened that he was riding in a wagon, because he was wounded. 
AN, I. 2, 14. 

Οὗτος δέ μοι φίλος οὖν εκ᾽ ᾿Ατρείδας στυγεῖ this man is my 
friend because he hates the Αἐγοϊαάαὶ. 8. pu. 586. ἴσθι τοῦτο 
πρῶτον οὕνεκα Ἕλληνές ἐσμεν know this first, that we are 
Greeks. 8. PH. 232. 


CLAUSES WITH Ὅτε, ᾿ Οπότε, * Enei, ᾿ Ἡνίκα, ᾿ Οπηνίκα 


Ὅτε while, when, and Ὁπότε whenever (286), intro- 
duce temporal clauses, the time of which is commonly 
the same as that of the leading verb. When ἄν with 
the subjunctive follows, av is jomed to the conjunc- 
tion; ore av becomes ὅταν, ὁπότε av becomes ὁπόταν. 

Ὅτε and Ὁπότε, like when, since, while, often take 
a causal meaning; rarely they take a concessive mean- 
ing, although. 

Ὅτε and Ὁπότε Clauses are like “Os and Ὅστις 
Clauses. With the subjunctive they are always tem- 
poral : : 

Ὅτε ταῦτα ἦν, σχεδὸν μέσαι ἦσαν νύκτες tt WAS 
about midnight when this was taking place, Ax. τι. 1, 84. 
ἐνταῦθα Ξέρξης, ὅτε ἐκ τῆς Ἑλλάδος ἀπεχώρει, 
λέγεται οἰκοδομῆσαι ταῦτα τὰ βασίλεια there Nerwes 


1 Lat. cum has like changes of meaning ; but the Greek use of modes 
must not be confused with the Latin. 


628 


264 COMPLEX SENTENCES 


is said to have built this palace when he was returning 
from Greece. Ax. τ. 3,9. (Here the inf. οἰκοδομῆσαι, 
representing an aor. indic., is the leading verb for the 
ὅτε clause which fixes its time.) ὅτ᾽ οὖν παραινοῦσ᾽ 
οὐδὲν ἐς πλέον ποιῶ, πρὸς σὲ ἱκέτις ἀφῖγμαι SINCE 
then I accomplish naught by advising (him), to thee 
7 have come, a supplant. 5. or. 918, χαλεπὰ ta παρ- 
ὄντα, ὁπότε ἀνδρῶν στρατηγῶν τοιούτων στερό- 
μεθα the present situation is hard, since we are bereft 
of such commanders. Ax. ut. 2, 2. 3 

Ὅταν σπεύδῃ τις αὐτός, χὠ θεὸς συνάπτεται 
whenever one shows zeal himself, God also aids, Δ. ν. 
44. ὅταν δὴ μὴ σθένω πεπαύσομαι L will stop 
when in truth I have no more strength. 8. ax. 91. 

"Ore ἔξω Tov δεινοῦ γένοιντο, πολλοὶ αὐτὸν ἀπέ. 
λειπον whenever they got out of danger, many would 
leave him. Avy. τι. 6,12. ἃ ἐκεῖνος ἐθήρευεν ἀπὸ ἵππου 
ὁπότε γυμνάσαι βούλοιτο ἑαυτόν τε καὶ τοὺς ἵπ- 
πους which he used to hunt on horseback, whenever he 
wished to exercise both himself and his horses, Ax. τ. 2,7. 
Etre and εὖτ᾽ ἄν in poetry have the same meaning and use as 
ore and ὅταν : 

Εὐὖτέ γ᾽ ἐξ ἀέλπτων Alas μετεγνώσθη θυμοῦ now that Aias, 
beyond our hope, has repented of his wrath. 8. at. 715. εὖτε 
πόντος ἐν μεσημβριναῖς κοίταις ἀκύμων νηνέμοις evdou πεσών 


1 The opt. in subordinate clauses of repeated past action, the use of 
the impf. and aor. indice, with ἄν in principal clauses for occasional past 
action (861 a, 367 a), and our similar use of would, as in translating the 
above sentence, all seem to proceed from the same mental tendency. 
Instead of making the statement in the form of a fact, it is made in the 
form of a supposed case; the context shows that the case assumed is 
understood as a typical one, such as occurred repeatedly, 


629 


CLAUSES WITH “Ore, Ἔϊεί, ETC. 265 


wheneer the sea fell waveless in its calm midday couch and 
slept. A. a. 570, : 


Ἐπεί when, after that, after, introduces temporal 
clauses; the time is commonly earlier than that of 
the leading clause. When ay with the subjunctive 
follows, av unites with ἐπεί and forms ἐπήν or ἐπᾶν. 

"Ezet also takes a causal, rarely a concessive, mean- 
ing—since, while, whereas, rarely although. 

Ἔπεί Clauses are like Ὅς and Ὅτε Clauses. With 
the subjunctive they are always temporal. 

Ἐπειδή (with av, ἐπειδάν is a strengthened form 
of ἐπεί. ἐπειδάν is more frequent than ἐπήν or 
ἐπᾶν. 

Ἐπεὶ ἐτελεύτησε Δαρεῖος, Τισσαφέρνης δια- 
βάλλει Κῦρον after Dareios died, Tissaphernes slan- 
dered Cyrus, Δν. τ. 1,8, ἐπεὶ ὑμεῖς ἐμοὶ οὐκ ἐθέ- 
λετε πείθεσθαι, ἐγὼ σὺν ὑμῖν ἕψομαι since you are 
unwilling to obey me, I will follow you. Ax. τ. ὃ, 6. 
ἐπειδὴ Κῦρος ἐκάλει, λαβὼν ὑμᾶς ἐπορευόμην when 
Cyrus called, I took you and went, Δκ. τ. 8,4. ἐπεὶ 
τοῦτο ἐγένετο Kal τοὺς νεκροὺς ὑποσπόνδους ἀπε- 
δίδοσαν, προσιόντες ἀλλήλους πολλοὶ διελέγοντο 
after this was over and they were giving back the dead 
under a truce, many approached and talked with each 
other, Η. πι. 4, 19. 

Ὁ δ᾽ ὑπέσχετο ἀνδρὶ ἑκάστῳ δώσειν πέντε ἀγρυρίου 
μνᾶς ἐπὴν εἰς Βαβυλῶνα ἥκωσι and he promised 
that he would give each man five minae im money 
after they should get to Babylon (the mode of the 
direct form, ἐπὴν ἥκωμεν, retained), An. τ. 4,18, ἐπει- 


690 


691 


200 COMPLEX SENTENCES 


dav ἅπαντα ἀκούσητε κρίνατε after you have heard 
all, then judge. UD. 4, 14. 

Οἱ μὲν ὄνοι, ἐπεί τις διώκοι, προδραμόντες ἕστα- 
σαν καὶ πάλιν ἐπεὶ πλησιάζοιεν OL ἵπποι, ταὐτὸν 
ἐποίουν the asses, whenever any one pursued them, ὦ 
would run forward and then stand still; and again 
they would do the same whenever the horses drew near. 
Ay. 15,2. ἐπειδὴ ἀνοιχθείη, εἰσῆμεν παρὰ τὸν 
Σωκράτη as soon as wt (the prison) was opened, we 
used to go in where Sokrates was. Pu. 59 a. 

a. Ἐπεί clauses may, like os clauses (612 a), be so loosely 
joined to the preceding sentence as to be in fact independent : 

᾿Επεὶ καὶ τοῦτό γέ μοι δοκεῖ καλὸν εἶναι although this too 

seems to me to be a fine thing. Δ». 19 e. 
Ἡνίκα when and Ὁπηνίκα whenever are like ore and ὅπότε in 
meaning and use, but they generally define the time more 
precisely—just when, at the very time when; they are much 
less frequent than ore and ὁπότε: 

Ἡ νίκα δείλη ἐγίγνετο, ἐφάνη κονιορτὸς ὥσπερ νεφέλη λευκή 
just as evening was coming on, there appeared a rising of dust, 
like a white cloud. Ay. τ. 8, 8, ἐπιχειρεῖ ἡνίκα av ἡμεῖς py 
δυναίμεθα ἐκεῖσε ἀφικέσθαι he makes attempts just when we 
should be unable to get there. UD. 4, 31. 

᾿Ἐξάρξω μὲν οὖν ἐγὼ ἣν κ᾿ ἂν καιρὸς ἢ παιᾶνα LT will myself, 
then, lead in a paean when the right moment comes. UH. τι. 4, 17. 

Εΐρπε δ᾽ ἄλλοτ᾽ ἀλλαχᾷ τότ᾽ ἂν εἰλυόμενος, dvix’ é€avein δακέ- 
θῦμος ἄτα then he would drag himself this way and that (after 
food), whenever the devouring anguish abated. S. νη. 705. 


CLAUSES WITH Ἕως, “Eote, Μέχρι, Αχρι 
Ἕως while, so long as, until, likewise Ἔσ-τε, Μέχρι οὗ, 
Μέχρι, Axpe (οὗν), wntil, so long as, introduce Relative 
Clauses of time. The indicative states a fact, present 


CLAUSES WITH Ἕως, “Eore, Μέχρι, ἸΑχρι 267 


or past; the subjunctive (with ἄν, sometimes with- 
out) and the optative (without av) have the same 
force as in ὅς clauses (616 a, b). 

In the sense of while, so long as, they naturally 
take one of the tenses of continuance (present, imper- 
fect, perfect); in the sense of until they generally 
take the aorist: 


Ἕως μένομεν αὐτοῦ, σκεπτέον μοι δοκεῖ ὅπως, κτλ. 
while we remain here, it seems to me we must consider 
how, etc. Ἀν. τ. 8,11... ἕως μὲν ἐτι μᾶτο, πιστὸν ἕαυ- 
τὸν παρεῖχεν so long as he was honored, he showed 
himself faithful. WL. 12, 66. 

Προσμείναντες ἕως τοὺς νεκροὺς ἀνείλοντο οἵ 
προσήκοντες waiting until their kinsmen had taken up 
the dead. U.u4,% ταῦτα ἐποίουν μέχρι σκότος 
ἐγένετο this they kept doing till darkness came on. 
AN. Iv. 2, 4. 

Ἕως δ᾽ ἂν οὖν ἐκμάθῃς, ἔχ᾽ ἐλπίδα but keep 
hope at any rate until you learn the whole, 8. or. 835. 
ἕως ἂν σῴζηται τὸ σκάφος, τότε χρὴ Kal ναύτην 
καὶ κυβερνήτην προθύμους εἶναι while the boat ds safe, 
then ought both sailor and pilot to be zealous. D. 9, 69. 
μέχρι ἂν ἥκω, at σπονδαὶ μενόντων let the truce con- 
tinue till I return. Avy. τι. 8, 34. ἐπίσχες ἔς τ᾽ ἂν Kal 
τὰ λοιπὰ προσμάθῃς wait till thou hast also learned 
the rest, A. pp. 723. 

Ἔδοξεν οὖν προϊέναι ἕως Κύρῳ συμμείξειαν 
they decided to go on, until they should join Cyrus. 
AN, 11. 1, 2. περιέμενε μ έχρι ἔλθοι he waited for 
him to come (till he should come), Η. τ. 3, 11. 


632 


633 


268 COMPLEX SENTENCES 


a. A ἕως clause has the indicative also when the action is 
known to be impossible, because dependent on a clause that 
implies unreality : 

᾿Ἐπισχὼν ἂν, ἕως οἱ πλεῖστοι τῶν εἰωθότων γνώμην ἀπεφή- 
ναντο, ἡσχυχίαν ἂν ἦγον I should have waited, until most of 
the several speakers had set forth their view, and should have 
kept still. Ὁ. 4, 1. 

b. Some of the above clauses with ἕως, etc., and the sub- 
junctive or optative imply both purpose and condition, while 
at the same time they are primarily temporal. 


“Qs CLAUSES 


Ὡς as, how, and ὥς thus, so, are adverbs of manner from ὅς 
(339); they differ only in accent, ὥς corresponding to the 
older demonstrative form of ὅς, and ws to the relative form ; 
sometimes ws itself is accented (18, 21 ὁ). 

The uses of ws as a subordinating conjunction fall under 
two classes : 

A. Corresponding to those of ds and other relative pro- 
nouns, 

B. Showing farther developments in special directions. 


A. Ὡς as, how, in which way, corresponds closely to ὅς in 
meaning, and introduces clauses like ὅς clauses; most of them 
are like simple sentences (615), but some have the subjunc- 
tive and optative in the manner described in 616 a and b. 

a. As purely relative, in comparisons, often in the strength- 
ened form ὥσπερ. Though a conjunction, és retains the force 
of an adverb in its own clause : 

᾿Εκέλευσε τοὺς Ἕλληνας, ὡς νόμος αὐτοῖς εἰς μάχην, οὕτω ταχθῆ- 
ναι καὶ στῆναι he directed the Greeks, as was their custom for 
battle, so to arrange themselves and take position. An. τ. 2, 15. 
θᾶττον ἢ ὡς ἂν weto more quickly than (as) one would have 
thought. An. 15,8 ὡς ὃ τάδε πορὼν ὄλοιτο as may he that 
wrought this perish. S. 8. 126. 


634 


‘Qs CLAUSES 269 


Often the antecedent is a sentence or phrase: ὡς μὲν τοῖς 
πλείστοις ἐδόκουν, φιλοτιμηθέντες, ὅτι κτλ. being jealous, as they 
appeared to the majority, because, etc. An. 1. 4, 7% So as ἐλέ- - 
γετο as was said, ws ἀκούω as I hear, and many like expres- 
sions. 


b. As indirect interrogative : 

Ἐξήγγειλε τὴν κρίσιν “Opovra, ὡς ἐγένετο he reported the 
trial of Orontes, how it was conducted. An. τ. 6, ὅ. ἄκουσον 
ὡς ἐρῶ hear how 1 shall tell tt. S. or. 547. οἶσθ᾽ ὡς ποίησον; 
do you know how you should do? (literally, do Jae know how 
do?) 8. or. 543. 

In this use also ὡς retains its force as adverb. 


6. Temporal : 

Ὁ δ᾽ ὡς ἀπῆλθε βουλεύεται but he, as he went away, con- 
sidered. Αν. τ. 1,4. ὡς εἶδε Κλέαρχον διελαύνοντα, ἵησι τῇ 
ἀξίνῃ when he saw Klearchos riding through, he threw his ax 
at him. Awn. 1. 5, 12. 


ἃ. Causal : 

Δέομαι σοῦ παραμεῖναι ἡμῖν, ὧς ἐγὼ οὐδ᾽ ἂν ἑνὸς ἥδιον ἀκού- 
σαιμι 1 beg you to stay with us, as there is not one whom I 
would more gladly hear. Pr. 385 ἃ. 


e. Such clauses, like those introduced by ὅς and ἐπεί (629 a), 
are often so loosely connected with the main verb as to be 
really independent sentences. 


f. Some common phrases have arisen from the omission of 
averb. Thus clauses like ὡς μάλιστα ἐδύνατο as he was most 
able (Ay. τ. 1, 6), and ὡς ἂν δύνωμαι dv ἐλαχίστων in as brief 
terms as I can (L. 12, 8), are abbreviated to os μάλιστα and ὡς 
δ ἐλαχίστων. In this way ὡς becomes merely a means of 
strengthening a superlative: ὡς βέλτιστος as good as possible. 


B. Two special uses of és have been developed from the rela- 
tive meaning (633 a). These are (1) the declarative, (2) the 
Jjinal, denoting purpose. 


θ8ὅ 


63 


σ9 


270 COMPLEX SENTENCES 


Clauses with ‘Qs declarative, meaning how, that, are 
like Clauses with Ὅτι meaning that (622): 

Οὔποτε ἐρεῖ οὐδεὶς ws ἐγὼ THY τῶν βαρβάρων didriav 
εἱλόμην noone shall ever say that I chose the frrend- 
ship of the barbarians, Ax. 1. 3,5. ὡς δὲ τοῦτο οὕτως 
ἔχει, πειράσομαι Kal ὑμῖν ἐπιδεῖξαι and that this is 80, 
I will try to show you also, Ar. 34 ο. 


Clauses with ‘Os final, denoting purpose, meaning that, 
in order that, are frequent in poetry, but rare in prose, 
except in Xenophon. With ὡς in this sense 


a. A subjunctive (often with av) denotes a pur- 
pose still to be accomplished : 

Δεῖ θεοῖς δοῦναι δίκην, ws av διδαχθῇ he must 
pay the penalty to the gods, that he may be taught, (in a 
way in which he may). A. v.10. ὡς δ᾽ ἂν μάθῃς 
OTL OVO ἂν ὑμεῖς δικαίως ἐμοὶ ἀπιστοίητε, ἀντάκουσον 
but that you may learn that you also would not justly 
distrust me, hear in turn, An. 1. 5, 16. 


b. An optative (without av) denotes a purpose of 
the same kind, but more remote from the speaker— 
e.g., as that of another person, or of a past situation, 
or as less likely to be accomplished. The optative is 
common after a past tense: 

‘Ikounv τὸ Πυθικὸν μαντεῖον, ὡς μάθοιμ᾽ ὅτῳ 
τρόπῳ πατρὶ δίκας ἀροίμην 7 came to the Pythian 
oracle, that I might learn in what way I should gain 
justice for my father, 8. ε. 38. προσκαλῶν τοὺς φίλους 
ἐσπουδαιολογεῖτο ws δηλοίη ovs τιμᾷ he used to call 


637 ° 


638 


“Ores CLAUSES Del 


his friends and talk seriously with them, so as to show 
whom he honored, Ax. τ. 9, 28. 

e. “A past tense of the indicative (imperfect, aorist, 
plupertect) marks the purpose as unattainable, part 
of an imaginary, unreal situation expressed or implied 
in the leading clause : 

Εἰ yap μ᾽ ὑπὸ γῆν ἧκεν, ws μήτε θεὸς μήτε τις ἄλλος 
τοῖσδ᾽ ἐπεγήθει oh that he had sent me under the 
earth, that neither god nor any other creature might be 
rejoicing at this, A. ve. 165. τί μ᾽ οὐ λαβὼν EKTELVAS, 
ὡς ἔδειξα μήποτε ἐμαυτὸν ἀνθρώποισιν why did 
you not take and slay me, that I might never have 
shown myself to men. 8. or. 1392. 

ἃ, For ὡς with a participle see 598 ὁ. 

For ὡς with an infinitive see 566. 


Ὥσπερ is a strengthened ὡς, used only in a relative and com- 
parative sense—even as, just as. Ὥσπερ clauses are therefore 
like simple sentences: 
σ ΄ > Q 9 A A - \ 3 3 4 
Ὥσπερ ἵππος εὐγενὴς ἐν τοῖσι δεινοῖς θυμὸν οὐκ ἀπώλεσεν, 
ε ΄ Ν ‘2 κι 3 Ae 
ὡσαύτως δὲ σὺ ἡμᾶς ὀτρύνεις even as a horse of noble blood does 
not lose heart (465) in danger, so thou dost spur us on. S. Ε. 25. 


“Ὅπως CLAUSES 


Ὅπως is the general relative and indirect interroga- 


tive to ds and πῶς. Ὅπως Clauses are like Ὡς Clauses, 
but some types are more frequent (and others less fre- 
quent) with ὅπως. The following are common. 

a. With a future indicative, after expressions of 
planning or effort, to denote the aim: 

Σκεπτέον μοι δοκεῖ εἶναι ὅπως ἀσφαλέστατα με- 
νοῦμεν wt seems to me we must consider how we shall 


972 COMPLEX SENTENCES 


remain most safely. Δκ. τ. 8, 11. βουλεύεται ὅπως 
μήποτε ἔτι ἔσται ἐπὶ τῷ ἀδελφῷ he considered how 
he should never again be dependent on his brother. 
Anx.t1,4 ὅπως Kal ὑμεῖς ἐμὲ ἐπαινέσετε ἐμοὶ 
μελήσει it shall be my care that you too shall praise 
me, An. τ. 4, 16. ἄλλο τι ἢ περὶ πολλοῦ ποιεῖ ὅπως ὡς 
βέλτιστοι οἱ νεώτεροι ἔσονται; don’t you think τέ, 
very important that the young shall be as good as pos- 
sible? Av. 24 4. 


b. Out of the preceding, by omission of the main verb, has 
grown the use of ὅπως and ὅπως μή with a future indicative to 
express a command or prohibition. A leading verb is no 
longer thought of, and the ὅπως clause becomes a form of sim- 
ple sentence: 

Ὅπως οὖν ἔσεσθε ἄνδρες ἄξιοι τῆς ἐλευθερίας prove your- 
selves men worthy of your freedom. Αν. τ. 7,3. ὅπως μὴ 
ποιήσετε ὃ πολλάκις ὑμᾶς ἔβλαψε see that you don’t do what 
has injured you often. D. 4, 20. 


e. With a subjunctive, often with ἄν, or an opta- 
tive without av, expressing purpose; in legal and 
official style ὅπως av with a subjunctive is frequent : 

Ἴσθι πᾶν τὸ δρώμενον, ὅπως ἂν εἰδὼς ἡμὶν ay- 
γείλῃς σαφῆ learn all that is going on, that you 
may with knowledge bring a clear report to us. 8. x. 40. 
δεῖ πειρᾶσθαι ὅπως καλῶς νϊκῶντες σῳζώμεθα We 
must try how we may save ourselves by conquering 
nobly. AN. ur. 2, 8. 

᾿Απεκρίνατο ὅτι αὐτῷ μέλοι ὅπως καλῶς ἔχοι he 
replied that he was taking care that it should be well. 
Ax, τ, 8,13. ἱκανὸς μὲν φροντίζειν ἦν ὅπως ἔχοι ἡ 


Ὥστε CLAUSES 273 


στρατιὰ αὐτῷ Ta ἐπιτήδεια he was competent to provide 
how his army should have supplies. Ax. τι. 6, 8. 


ἃ. After expressions of caution or fear a clause with ὅπως 


᾿ μή sometimes takes the place of a μή clause (610, 611) : 


Δέδοικα ὅπως μὴ ἡμῖν ἀνάγκη γενήσεται 7 fear that neces- 
sity will come upon us. D. 9, 7ὅ. φυλάττου ὅπως μὴ εἰς τοὐναν- 


tiov ἔλθῃς take care that you do not run into the very opposite. 


M. τπ. 6, 16. Slightly different is τὴν θεὸν δ᾽ ὅπως λάθω δέδοικα 
but I fear I shall not escape the goddess (literally, I fear the 
goddess, how I shall escape her). ¥. rv. 995. 

e. The common phrase οὐκ ἔστιν ὅπως there is not how is 
translated variously according to the context: 

Οὐκ ἔστιν ὅπως οὐκ ἐπιθήσεται ἡμῖν it 15 impossible that 
he will not attack us. ΑΝ. τι. 4, 8. οὐκ ἔστιν ὅπως σὺ ταῦτα 
οὐχὶ ἀποπειρώμενος ἡμῶν ἐγράψω τὴν γραφὴν ταύτην it can not be 
but that you brought this indictment by way of making trial 
of us. Ap. 237 6. οὐκ ἔσθ᾽ ὅπως ὄψει σὺ δεῦρ᾽ ἐλθόντα pe YOU 
surely will never see me come here. 8. ΑΝ. 829. 


ἽὝὍὭστε CLAUSES 


639 Ὥστε (ὡς or ὥς and re) has three meanings and uses : 


a. And so, so that, with any finite mode. The mode has 
the same force as in simple sentences; in fact the ὥστε clause 
is often independent : 

Ὥστε βασιλεὺς τὴν pév πρὸς ἑαυτὸν ἐπιβουλὴν οὐκ ἡσθάνετο 
80 that the king did not perceive the plot against himself. An. 1. 
1,8. ὥστς μηδὲν dv ἄλλο pe ἡγεῖσθε ταύτην ποιεῖσθαι τὴν ἀπο- 
λογίᾶν so do not suppose that I make this defense for any other 
reason. i. 16, 8. 

b. As, like ὡς and ὥσπερ in comparisons, mostly without a 
verb expressed : 

Πάντες, ὥστε τοξόται σκοποῦ, τοξεύετ᾽ ἀνδρὸς τοῦδε you all 
shoot at me, as archers ata mark. 8... av. 1088, 

6, So as to, so that, with an infinitive, see 566. 

18 


640 


641 


642 


914 COMPLEX SENTENCES 


Ἵνα CLAUSES 


"Iva has two meanings and uses: 


(1) Relative, where; in poetry this older meaning 
is still the prevailing one ; 

(2) Final, denoting purpose, ἐπ order that, that; im 
prose this is the most frequent final conjunction. 


Clauses with “Iva relative are like “Os Clauses (615) ; 
the verb is generally in the indicative ; wa sometimes 
becomes an indirect interrogative : 

Ἔν ἀγορᾷ, ἵνα ὑμῶν πολλοὺ ἀκηκόᾶσι wm the 
market-place, where many of you have heard me. Av. 
7c. τῷδ᾽ ἀπανθρώπῳ πάγῳ, ἵν᾽ οὔτε φωνὴν οὔτε Tov 
μορφὴν βροτῶν ὄψει to this lone hight, where neither 
voice nor form of any mortal shalt thou behold. A. vs. 21. 
ὁρᾷς tv’ ἥκεις; dost 866 where thou art come?  &. or. 
687. 


In Clauses with “Iva final (ep. 686) : 

a. A subjunctive (without av) denotes a purpose 
still to be accomplished : 

To ἀνδρὶ ὃν ἂν ἕλησθε πείσομαι, ἵνα εἰδῆτε ὅτι 
καὶ ἄρχεσθαι ἐπίσταμαι 7 will obey the man whom you 
elect, that you may know that I understand also how to 
be ruled. Ax. τ. 8,15. ἃ ᾿Αβροκόμᾶς κατέκαυσεν, ἵνα 
μὴ Κῦρος δια βῇ which (boats) Abrokomas burned, 
that Cyrus might not cross. Av. 1. 4, 18. 


b. An optative (without av) denotes a purpose of 
the same kind, but more remote from the speaker— 
e.g., that of another person, or of a past situation, or 


Ἵνα CLAUSES 215 


a purpose less likely to be realized. The optative is 
common after a past tense, and when subordinate to 
another optative : 

Λαβὼν ὑμᾶς ἐπορευόμην, ἵνα ὠφελοίην αὐτὸν 
ἀνθ᾽ ὧν εὖ ἔπαθον ὑπ᾽ ἐκείνου L took you and came, that 
L might aid him in return for the kindness I had 
recewed from him. Δκ. τ. 3,4. Μένων δῆλος Av ἐπιθῦ- 
μῶν τιμᾶσθαι ἵνα πλείω κερδαίνοι Menon was 
plainly eager to be honored, that he might make greater 
gains, AN. τι. 6, 31. θυμὸν γένοιτο χειρὶ πληρῶσαί ποτε, 
ἵν᾽ αἱ Μυκῆναι γνοῖεν may wt some time be mine to 
satisfy with deeds my longing, that Mykenai Ta 


learn, ete. 5. pH. 325. 


6. A past tense of the indicative GQmpertfect, a 
pluperfect) marks the purpose as unattainable, part 
of an imaginary, unreal situation, expressed or implied 
in the leading clause : 

Ov yap ἐχρὴν ἄρχοντας οἰκείους εἶναι, ἵν᾽ ἢν ws 
ἀληθῶς τῆς πόλεως ἡ δύναμις ; Ought there not to have 
been commanders of your own, that the forces might 
really belong to the state? D. 4, 31. οὐκ ἂν ἐσχόμην, 
iv ἢ τυφλός τε καὶ κλύων μηδέν 7 should not have 
refrained, that I might be both blind and deaf. 


_ 5S. or. 1389. 


d. Note that any clause of purpose, if its leading clause 
implies that the case is already impossible, takes a past tense 
of the indicative. 

This is a form of attraction, the mode of the leading clause 
determining the mode of the subordinate clause. In the same 
way, any clause dependent on an optative is generally attracted 
to the optative, 


643 


644 


276 COMPLEX SENTENCES 


Πρίν CLAUSES 


The comparative adverb πρίν earlier, before, is used often with 
the infinitive (see 568). It also becomes a subordinating con- 
junction; it may then often be best rendered 271]. 


In Clauses with Πρίν 


a. An indicative denotes a past fact: 

Οὐκ ἰέναι ἤθελε, πρὶν ἡ γυνὴ αὐτὸν ἔπεισε Kal 
πίστεις ἔλαβε he was not willing to go, until his wife 
persuaded him and he had received pledges. An. τ. 2, 26. 
δμαθέντας yap ἀνίστη, πρὶν αὐτὸν εἷλε Διόβολον 
πλῆκτρον πυρὸς κεραυνίου for he was wont to raise the 
dead, until the Zeus-hurled bolt of thunderous fire ae 
stroyed him,  ¥. au. 128. 


b. A subjunctive (usually with av) describes not a 
real but a supposed or anticipated case; the time is 
future, or present in the generalized sense: 

Acirat αὐτοῦ μὴ πρόσθεν καταλῦσαι πρὶν ἄν αὐτῷ 
συμβουλεύσηται he asks him not to come to terms 
before consulting with him, Ax.1.1, 10. μὴ στέναζε 
πρὶν μάθῃς no more lament, before thou learnest. 
5. Ὁ. 917% αἰσχρὸν ἡγοῦμαι πρότερον παύσασθαι, πρὶν 
ἂν ὑμεῖς περὶ αὐτῶν ὅ τι ἂν βούλησθε ψηφίσησθε 
L think it a shame to stop before you shall have voted 
what you will about them, 1. 22, 4. 


c. An optative (without av) describes a supposed 
case, but more remote in thought from the speaker— 
as the thought of another, or as part of a past or 
an imaginary situation; the optative is not frequent: 


θ4ὅ 


Ei CLAUSES ORY 


Ὑποσχόμενος αὐτοῖς μὴ πρόσθεν παύσασθαι πρὶν 
αὐτοὺς καταγάγοι οἴκαδε promising them that he 
would not stop till he should restore them to their 
homes. Ax. 1.22 οὔποτ᾽ ἔγωγ᾽ ἂν, πρὶν ἴδοιμ᾽ ὁρ- 
Gov ἔπος, μεμφομένων ἂν καταφαίην never would T, 
before I see the word made good, say yea when they do 
blame him. 8. ov. 505. 


ἃ. An indicative πρίν clause generally has a negative lead- 
ing clause ; subjunctive and optative πρίν clauses nearly always 
do. When the leading clause is affirmative, πρίν generally 
takes the infinitive; in the meaning before, when until can 
not be substituted, it takes the infinitive even after a negative. 


Ei CLAUSES 


What is stated not as a fact but as a supposition, assumed in 
order to base upon it another statement, is called a condition ; 
any word or form of words that so states something is a condi- 
tional expression. Common conditional expressions in English 
are such as begin with if, unless, suppose, in case, on the chance 
that, whoever, whenever, etc.; inversion of subject and predi- 
cate may have the same meaning, as Were 7 Brutus, or Should 
you ask me. Several forms of conditional expression in Greek, 
used for stating a supposed case, have been already noted (481, 
616, 618, 620, 627, 629-631); but the fullest and most dis- 
tinct form is the εἰ clause. A conditional sentence consists 
of a conditional clause or condition (protasis) and a principal 
clause, the conclusion (apodosis). 


* Other frequent forms of condition are illustrated in 

What matter, so I help him back to life.-—Trnnyson, Lance. and El. 

Not without she wills it.—TrEnnyson, Lane. and El. 

Man gets no other light, 

Search he a thousand years.—M. Arnoup, Emped. 

Imperative and interrogative sentences, in both English and Greek, 
sometimes have the same office. 


646 


647 


278 COMPLEX SENTENCES 


Ei 7 introduces conditional clauses, stating a sup- 
posed or assumed case. (I*or other meanings of the 
εἰ clause see 654, 655.) 

Ei clauses may have the verb in (A) the indicative, (B) the 
subjunctive, (C) the optative. ‘The negative is μή. The con- 
clusion may be any form of simple sentence; but certain 
forms of conclusion and condition are naturally more apt to 
go together. 


A. Ei with the Indicative 


Ei with the present indicative, also with the perfect, 
imperfect, and aorist, presents the supposition simply, 
without implying anything as to its reality or proba- 
bility ; the tenses have the same force as in simple 
sentences (Stmple or Logical Condition, present or 
past) : 

Εἴπερ ye Δαρείου ἐστὶ παῖς, οὐκ ἀμαχεῖ ταῦτ᾽ 
ἐγὼ λήψομαι if he is indeed a son of Dareios, I shall 
not take this without a battle. Αν. τ. 7,9. θαυμάζοιμ᾽ 
ἂν εἰ οἶσθα 1) should be surprised if you know. 
Pr. 312 c. φήσουσι δή με σοφὸν εἶναι, εἰ καὶ μή εἰμι 
they will say of course that I am wise, although (af in 
fact) Lam not. The καί hints, without quite assert- 
ing, that the case is not merely assumed, but real. 
Ap. 38 ο. 

Ov θαυμαστὸν δ᾽ εἰ τότε τὰς popias ἐξέκοπτον 
it is not surprising if at that time they cut out the 
sacred olive-trees, 1. 7%, ἢ. et κερδαίνειν ἐβούλου, 
τότ᾽ ἂν πλεῖστον ἔλαβες 17 you wished to make money, 
you would in that case have got most. The εἰ clause 
here is a simple condition ; τότε is a conditional ex- 


648 


Ei CLAUSES 279 


pression that resumes an earlier clause and stands for 
an unreal condition (649). L. 7,20. εἰ ταῦτ᾽ αἰσθό- 
μενος ἐγὼ διεκώλῦσα, ταῦτ᾽ ἐστὶ προδότην εἶναι τῶν 
φίλων ; of L, perceiving this, prevented it, is that being 
a betrayer of one’s friends? Ἡ. τι. 8, 46. 


The future indicative in an Ei Clause 


a. Is in form a simple future condition ; sometimes 
it is equivalent to μέλλω with an infinitive, denoting 
present intention or expectation : 

Et τούτου καταψη φιεῖσθε, δῆλοι ἔσεσθε ὡς ὁρ- 
γιζόμενοι τοῖς πεπραγμένοις if you vote against this 
man, τέ will be plain that you are angry at their deeds. 
L. 12,90. ἀσύνετα νῦν ἐροῦμεν, εἴ σέ γ᾽ εὐφρανῶ 
we will talk nonsense now, if I shall (thereby) please 
you. ἘΝ. τὰ. 654. εἰ οὖν οἱ δοκοῦντες διαφέρειν τοιοῦτοι 
ἔσονται, αἰσχρὸν ἂν εἴη 17 then those who are thought 
superior are to be like that, it would be a shame. 
Ap. 35 a. 

b. It often suggests threat, warning, or earnest 
appeal (Aimotional Future Condition) : 

Εἰ ὑφησόμεθα καὶ ἐπὶ βασιλεῖ γενησόμεθα, 
τί οἰόμεθα πείσεσθαι ; if we yield and come into the 
king’s power, what treatment do we expect 5 Ax. 1.1, 17. 
εἰ Timwpyoers Πατρόκλῳ τὸν φόνον καὶ Ἕκτορα 
ἀποκτενεῖς, αὐτὸς ἀποθανεῖ if you shall avenge the 
slaying of Patroklos and kill Hektor, you will your- 
self die, Av. 28 ς. 


In such cases the indicative presents the supposition more 
distinctly as a possible future fact; if the consequences will 


649 


280 COMPLEX SENTENCES 


be serious, it gives a ‘ minatory or monitory ” tone to force one 
to look at them in that way. 


Ei with the indicative imperfect and aorist, rarely the 
pluperfect, is used to imply that the supposition is 
past realization, opposed to a known fact ( Unreal 
Present or Past Condition). 

The imperfect is used when the reality would be 
expressed by the present or imperfect, the aorist 
when the reality would be expressed by the aorist, 
the pluperfect when the reality would be expressed 
by the perfect : 

Φῶς εἰ μὴ εἴχομεν, ὅμοιοι τοῖς τυφλοῖς ἂν ἦμεν 
if we did not have light (as we do) we should be like 
the blind, M. τιν. 3,3. οὐκ ἂν νήσων ἐκράτει, εἰ μή τι 
καὶ ναυτικὸν εἶχε he would not have ruled over is- 
lands, if he had not had some naval force (therefore 
he had, εἶχε ναυτικόν). T. 1. 9. 

Εἰ μὴ ὑμεῖς ἤλθετε ἐπορευόμεθα ἂν ἐπὶ βασιλέᾷ 
uf you had not come (but you did, ἤλθετε), we should 
now be marching against the king, Ay.u.1,4. εἴ τίς 
σε ἤρετο, TL ἂν ἀπεκρίνω ; if some one had asked you 
(nobody did), what should you have answered? Pr. 
Bil b, εἴ σετύχη προύπεμψε καὶ ἡλικίᾶς ἐπέβη- 
σεν, ἐλπίδι γ᾽ ἦσθα μέγας if fortune had guided thee 
on and brought thee to manhood, in hope at least thou 
wast great, CTA, 2263. 

Εἰ ἐκεκτήμην οὐσίᾶν, ἐπ᾿ ἀστράβης ἂν ὠχούμην 
if I possessed property, I should ride on a saddle. 
L, 24, 11. 


Ei CLAUSES 281 


B. ᾿Εᾶν with the Subjunctive 


650 ‘The subjunctive takes ἄν (rarely omitted), which is 


651 


jomed with εἰ, forming ἐάν (often contracted to ἤν 
or av). 

The subjunctive puts the supposition simply, re- 
ferring it either to future time, or to any or all time 
(the generalizing present), whichever the context, 
especially the leading clause, may indicate (Simple 
future Condition, or General Condition), 

Ἢν μὲν μένωμεν, σπονδαί if we remain, a truce. 
Ax. τι. 1, 38. ἣν τοῦτο λάβωμεν, ov δυνήσονται μέ 
νειν of we take this, they will not be able to remain. 
An. mu. 4,41. ἐὰν δ᾽ ἀπῇ TO χαίρειν, Tad’ ἐγὼ καπ- 
νοῦ σκιᾶς οὐκ ἂν πριαίμην but if joy be gone, the rest 
L would not for a vapors shadow buy. 8. ax. 1170. 

Ei τι νὺξ ἀφῇ, τοῦτ᾽ ἐπ’ ἦμαρ ἔρχεται if night 
leaves aught, this the day assails, 8. ov. 198. 


a. For ἐάν meaning on the chance that, see 652. 

Ὁ, Greek also uses the present indicative (with εἰ) in gen- 
eral conditions, as English does (cp. 617). 

e. Greek and Latin uses of the subjunctive in conditions 
must not be confused. ἐάν with the subjunctive corresponds 
to si with the future or future perfect indicative; si with the 
subjunctive corresponds to εἰ with the optative (651): ἐὰν 
τοῦτο ποιήσῃς si hoc facies or feceris. 


C. Ei with the Optative 


Ei with the optative (without dv) presents the sup- 
position as more remote in thought (616 b)— 

(1) As a mere possibility, generally future, some- 
times present or general (Possible Condition), 


282 COMPLEX SENTENCES 


(2) As part of a past situation which occurred 
repeatedly (Past Lepeated Condition), 


(3) As the thought of another person or an ear- 
lier time (Quoted Condition) ; the future optative in 
such a condition always represents a future indicative 
of the original form : 


Οὐκ ἂν θαυμάζοιμι εἰ οἱ πολέμιοι ἡμῖν ἐπακο- 
λουθοῖεν L should not be surprised if the enemy 
should follow us, Ax. τι. 2, 35. λύπουμένοις ὀχληρός, 
εἰ μόλοι, ξένος a guest annoys the sorrowing, if he 
come, E. au. 540. καὶ τοῦτό γέ μοι δοκεῖ καλὸν εἶναι, 
εἴ τις οἷός T εἴη παιδεύειν ἀνθρώπους this too seems 
to me a fine thing, if one be really able to educate 
people, Av. 19 e. 


Ei δή ποτε πορεύοιτο καὶ πλεῖστοι μέλλοιεν 
ὄψεσθαι, προσκαλῶν τοὺς φίλους ἐσπουδαιολογεῖτο if 
ever he was on the march and many would see it, he 
would call his friends and talk seriously with them. 
An. 1.9, 28. τῶν πολλῶν εἴ τις αἴσθοιτο, ἐσίγα τ 
any of the popular party perceived it, he said nothing. 
Ὁ. 9, 61. 

᾿Ἐβουλήθησαν ᾿Ἐλευσῖνα ἐξιδιώσασθαι, ὥστε εἶναι 
σφίσι καταφυγὴν εἰ δεήσειε they wished to make 
Hleusis their own, so as to have it as a refuge in case 
of need, H. τι. 4,8, γνοὺς 6 Kpurids ὅτι εἰ ἐπιτρέψοι 
τῇ βουλῇ διαψηφίζεσθαι περὶ αὐτοῦ διαφεύξοιτο A7it- 
tas, recognizing that, if he should allow the council to 
decide about him by a vote, he would escape (direct, 
εἰ ἐπιτρέψω). Η. π. 8, 50. 


652 


653 


654 


655 


Ei CLAUSES 283 


a. Rarely εἰ with the optative expresses an unreal condi- 
tion, as in Homer. 


Ἐάν with the subjunctive, and after a past tense εἰ with the 
optative, are sometimes to be translated on the chance that, in 
the hope that, if perchance; the future supposition of the ἐάν 
or εἰ clause is a motive for the action of the leading clause: 
Οὔκουν ἀτρέμ᾽ ἕξεις, nv τι καὶ χορδῆς λάβῃς won't you keep 
quiet then, on the chance of getting some sausage too? Ar. RK. 889. 
πέμψαντες πρέσβεις, εἴ πως πείσειαν μὴ σφῶν πέρι νεωτερίζειν 
μηδέν sending envoys, in hopes they might (if haply they might) 
induce them to make no innovations in regard to them. T. τ. 58. 


Εἴτε... cireand ἐάν te . . . ἐᾶν τε whether . . . or, introduce 
alternative conditions, with indicative, subjunctive, or optative: 

Πάντως δήπου, ἐάν τε σὺ καὶ "Avutos οὐ Pare ἐάν τε PATE 
it certainly is so, whether you and Anytos say no or say yes. 
Ap. 25 b. 
After expressions of wonder, indignation, and some 
other emotions, εἰ with the indicative is used to de- 
scribe, in the milder form of a supposition, the fact 
that causes the emotion. In such clauses εἰ may 
sometimes be translated τ, but oftener that: 

Θαυμάζω δ᾽ ἔγωγε εἰ μηδεὶς ὑμῶν μήτ᾽ ἐνθυμεῖ- 
ται μήτ᾽ ὀργίζεται but Lam for my part sur- 
prised that no one of you bears tt in mind or ts angry. 
D. 4, 43. 

Other Uses of Εἰ 

After expressions of doubt or inquiry, εἰ with the 
indicative (rarely ἐάν with the subjunctive) becomes 
an indirect question. In such clauses εἰ (or ἐάν) may 
sometimes be translated ἐ7, but more often whether : 

Bi μὲν δὴ δίκαια ποιήσω οὐκ οἶδα whether 7 shall 
be doing right I do not know. ἂν. τ. ὃ, ὅ. εἰ ξυμπο- 


656 


657 


658 


284. COMPLEX SENTENCES 


νήσεις καὶ ξυνεργάσῃ σκόπει see whether thou 
wilt work with me and share the deed,  S. an. 41. 


By omission of the verb some common phrases have arisen : 

a. Εἰ μή except, εἰ μὴ dia except for: 

᾿Απολέσαι παρεσκευάζοντο τὴν πόλιν, εἰ μὴ δι’ ἄνδρας ἀγαθούς 
they were preparing to destroy the state, except for (had it not 
been for) some good men. L. 12, 60. 


Ὁ. Ὥσπερ ἂν εἰ as, like; the ἄν suggests a hypothetical in- 
dicative or optative as a conclusion to an εἰ clause: 

Εὐθὺς ἠσπάζετο αὐτὸν ὥσπερ av εἰ πάλαι φιλῶν ἀσπάζοιτο he 
greeted him at once, just as if one should greet an old friend. 
C. 1.8, 3. (ἀσπάζοιτο might have been omitted.) 


6. Ei δὲ μή otherwise also introduces a supposition contrary 
to something that precedes—often where μή seems unneces- 
sary, sometimes where we should expect ἐάν instead of εἰ: 

᾽Ἄπῃτει τὰ χρήματα: εἰ δὲ μή, πολεμήσειν ἔφη αὐτοῖς he de- 
manded the return of the property; otherwise he said he would 
make war on them. HH. 1. 8, 3. μὴ ποιήσῃς ταῦτα, εἰ δὲ μή, 
αἰτίαν ἕξεις do not do this, else you will be blamed. An. vu. 1, 8. 


INDIRECT DISCOURSE 


Words or thoughts so quoted as to be made grammatically 
subordinate in form to a verb or other expression meaning 
say, think, hear, or the like, are indirect quotations; a direct 
quotation retains the original form. 

The forms used in indirect discourse have been already 
given in their proper places; for convenience they are here 
briefly summed up together. 


Simple sentences and principal clatises (not interrogative) in 
indirect quotation are put in the infinitive after certain verbs 
(577-579)—after φημι, οἴομαι, and νομίζω regularly in prose, 
seldom after λέγω and εἶπον, except in the sense of bid. 


659 


660 


661 


662 


INDIRECT DISCOURSE 285 


After most other verbs such clauses are introduced by ὅτι or 
ὡς (624, 635); the original tense is retained, the original 
mode is retained always after primary tenses and often after 
historical tenses. (But see 624 c.) 


a. But after historical tenses an indicative or subjunctive 
may be changed to an optative, unless that would cause am- 
biguity ; an indicative with ἄν (461, 467, 469) is retained un- 
changed, to avoid confusion with a hypothetical optative. 


b. After one or more ὅτι or os clauses, when the introduc- 
tory verb of saying is no longer near, a succeeding principal 
clause may be in the infinitive—as if the introductory verb 
had been one that requires the infinitive. 


After verbs of thinking, hearing, and the lke, that take a 
predicate participle agreeing with the object (586), the lead- 
ing verb of a drief quotation may be changed to a predicate 
participle. (See examples under 586.) 


Direct questions, when made indirect, retain the original mode 
and tense; but after historical tenses they may change an 
indicative or subjunctive to the optative, like ὅτι clauses 
(659 a). 

Note especially that no indirect question has the subjunc- 
tive unless the direct form has it (dubitative subjunctive, 471) ; 
and that the optative is never required, even after a past 
tense. 


Subordinate clauses of indirect discourse retain the mode and 
tense of the direct form always after a primary tense, often 
after a historical tense. But after a historical tense they may 
change an indicative or subjunctive to an optative, unless 
that would cause ambiguity ; a past tense of the indicative in 
an unreal condition (649), or in a clause that expresses a pur- 
pose past attainment (686 c, 642 0), is retained unchanged, to 
avoid confusion with other forms of conditional or final 
clauses. 


663 


664 


286 COMPLEX SENTENCES 


A long quotation carried through strictly in the indirect 
form, as is so often done in Latin, would have seemed in 
Greek monotonous and dull. The Greek preferred to vary it 
by repeating ἔφη, by inserting ἔφη χρῆναι or ἐκέλευσε before an 
expression of will, and by shifting from indirect to direct 
forms. English resembles Greek rather than Latin in this 
respect. 


Examples of Indirect Discourse. 

᾿Αγαπήσειν pe ἔφασκεν εἰ τὸ σῶμα σώσω he said 1 would 
be satisfied if I should save my life (direct, ἀγαπήσεις εἰ σώσει). 
gt Pe OE 

Ἥκεν ἄγγελος λέγων ὅτι λελοιπὼς εἴη Συέννεσις τὰ ἄκρα, ἐπεὶ 
ἤσθετο τὸ Μένωνος στράτευμα ὅτι ἤδη ἐν Κιλικίᾷ ἣν there came a 
messenger saying that Syennesis had left the hights after he 
perceived that Menon’s force was already in Kilikia (direct, 
λέλοιπε, ἐπεὶ ἤσθετο ὅτι ἦν. For ἦν see 624 ¢.). AN. τ. 2, 21. 

‘O δὲ ἀπεκρίνατο ὅτι ἀκούοι ᾿Αβοκόμᾶν, ἐχθρὸν ἄνδρα, ἐπὶ 
τῷ Εὐφρᾶτῃ ποταμῷ εἶναι, ἀπέχοντα δώδεκα σταθμούς" πρὸς τοῦτον 
οὖν ἔφη βούλεσθαι ἐλθεῖν" κἂν μὲν n ἐκεῖ, τὴν δίκην ἔφη χρῃ- 
ζειν ἐπιθεῖναι αὐτῷ, ἢν δὲ φεύγῃ, ἡμεῖς ἐκεῖ πρὸς ταῦτα βουλευσόμεθα 
he answered that he had heard (ἀκούω) that Abrokomas, an ene- 
my of his, was near the river Huphrates, twelve days’ march 
distant (this fact would have been reported to Cyrus in the 
form ᾿Αβροκόμᾶς ἐστί) 5 against him therefore he said he wished 
(direct, βούλομαι) to go; and if he proved to be there (direct 
form retained), he said he wished to punish him (direct, χρήζωλ ; 
but if he retreats, we will there concert measures in regard to 
this (direct quotation). An. 1. 8, 20. 


In An. τ. 8, 14, ἑλέσθαι depends on εἶπε in the sense of dade, 
urged, representing a hortative subjunctive ἑλώμεθα or an im- 
perative ἕλεσθε. Similarly ἀγοράζεσθαι, συσκευάζεσθαι, αἰτεῖν, 
συντάττεσθαι, πέμψαι. Meantime εἰ βούλεται remains in the 
direct form; ἡ δὲ ἀγορὰ ἣν is ἃ remark of Xenophon, not of the 
soldier ; ws ἀποπλέοιεν represents ὡς ἀποπλέωμεν of the direct ; 
ἐὰν διδῷ and ἀπάξει are unchanged, as are φθάσωσι and ἔχομεν. 


665 


666 


————  πὐππἔΕῆπ πᾳ ττὺς-- 


PARTICLES 287 


PARTICLES 


A class of words called Particles, some of them conjunctions, 
some adverbs, some both at once, are used freely in Greek to 
make clearer certain relations between ideas. Most of the 
ordinary conjunctions have practical equivalents in English, 
and hence make no difficulty. (See, e. g., 602.) But for some 
of the commonest particles, adverbial in character, or partly 
adverbial and partly conjunctional, English has no precise 
equivalents in separate words; we express only by stress, by 
pauses, and by tones or changes of pitch (speech-tune) what 
in Greek is fully expressed, by these particles and by word- 
order, on the printed page. The force of such particles can 
be really learned only by observation in reading, especially 
while reading aloud and while listening to such reading. The 
following sections (666-673) describe briefly the more distinct 
meanings of the particles that most require attention, although 
such a description can not be very exact. 

Particles which can not begin a clause are postpositive, 
and are marked in the following list by an asterisk, as ἢ ἄν. 


*”"Ay marks the action of a verb as more or less uncertain, 
either (1) as contingent on circumstances not yet realized, or 
(2) as itself merely supposed. The first use is seen in the 
hypothetical indicative and optative (461, 467, 479); in the 
second use dv stands (or may stand) with most classes of sub- 
ordinate subjunctives (616 a, 618 a, 620, 627-632, 636 a, 638 c, 
644,650). ἄν is not used with subordinate μή clauses nor with 
quoted dubitative subjunctives, because it was not used with 


the simple subjunctive sentences from which these subordi- 


nate clauses arose; it nearly dropt out of purpose clauses, 
though ὅπως and ὡς clauses often retain it. 

a. Rarely ἄν stands with a future indicative to mark it as 
contingent, or with a future participle representing such an 
indicative. 


The negative adverbs οὐ and μή have been described (486) ; 
their compounds differ in meaning as do simple οὐ and μή. 


288 COMPLEX SENTENCES 


Οὐδέ (μηδέ) is the negative of δέ and καί, (1) as conjunction, 
but not, and not, nor, especially in continuing a negative ; 
(2) as adverb, emphasizing the following word or phrase, nor 
yet, also not, not. . . erther, not even. 


668 Apa and 7 mark a sentence as interrogative, implying nothing 


689 


670 


as to the answer expected. 

For μή and μῶν in questions see 488 a,c. οὐ in a question 
is hke English not, implying that the answer 2 yes is expected ; 
so also οὐκοῦν, but less strongly. dpa before μή or οὐ merely 
makes the interrogative force more distinct. 

Πότερον (πότερα)... ἤ introduce the members of an alter- 
native question, en -.. an. (Whether ... or was for- 
merly used in the same sense, but whether is not so used in 
modern prose in a direct question.) 


a. * Mev, a weaker form of μήν (671 a), implies that the word 
before it, or the phrase in which it stands, is thought of as 
contrasted with something that is to follow; the second con- 
trasted member is usually marked by * δέ, sometimes by ἀλλά 
or some other adversative conjunction, but is sometimes left 
unexpressed. μέν and δέ are very frequent, marking a great 
variety of contrasted ideas, often where English or Latin 
would use for the former member a concessive clause, intro- 
duced by although and the like. 

Note that δέ is always a conjunction; hence pe... δέ 
can be used only when the second member requires a but 
or and. 

Ὁ. * Μέντοι (μέν and τοι, 671 6) generally marks a contrast 
or a transition to a different topic, however, yet. 

But sometimes the older force of μέν (= μήν) is more 
prominent—certainly, surely. So sometimes in other combi- 
nations, as πάνυ μὲν οὖν assuredly, certainly. 


a. Καί (besides its use as a conjunction, and) is an adverb, also, 
even, emphasizing the following word or phrase. 

Kai εἰ is even tf, εἰ καί if in fact, although, καὶ δὴ καί and of 
course also, and in particular. ᾿ β 


PARTICLES 289 


Ὁ. Καίτοι is slightly adversative, and yet. 
0. Καίπερ although stands only with participles (598 b). 


671 Several particles are intensive, denoting emphasis or stress, of 


slightly varying degree and:kind. 

a. *Myv in truth is the strongest, often giving prominence 
to the whole statement rather than to a single.word; ἢ μήν 
verily introduces the formula of an oath; καὶ μὴν and surely, 
and see, in tragedy often calls attention to a newcomer. 

The weakened form μέν sometimes retains a similar force 
(cp. 669). 

b. The enclitic *ye emphasizes the preceding word by 
restriction. At least has a like force, but is usually .too 
strong; a slight stress of voice is sometimes the only transla- 
tion possible. *yotv (γε and οὖν, 678 a) is a stronger at least, 
at any rate. 


0. The most untranslatable and elusive is * δή. 

(1) Its force falls on a single preceding word (though 
another particle may intervene), marking the idea as obvious, 
definite, positive; δῆλα δή quite plain, πολλοὶ δή a great many, 
κάλλιστος δή the very finest, clearly the finest, οὕτως δή in just 
this way, ποῦ δή; where, pray? εἰ δή uf indeed, spare δή you 
See, of course, τότε δή then indeed. Sometimes it gives an 
ironical tone, forsooth, as he claims. 

(2) Its force extends to a whole clause, near the beginning 
of which it stands; it then marks the statement as obvious, 
to be expected under the circumstances; it may thus become 
inferential, of course, you see, clearly, accordingly. 


d. The form * δῆτα surely is a stronger, δήπου (δή and που) 
a weaker δή. δήπου is often ironical, doubtless, I Suppose. 
δῆθεν is almost always ironical, forsooth. 


6. The enclitic ἤτοι is by origin a for dative of σύ (older 
tv); thus it calls the listener’s attention to the statement, as 
one that concerns him. The translation is various; doubtless, 


you know, be assured, have a similar tone, but are usually too 
19 


672 


290 COMPLEX SENTENCES 


strong. Frequent compounds are μέντοι (669 Ὁ), οὔτοι surely — 
not. For τοίνυν, etc., see 673 Ὁ. 


From ye ἄρα (678 a) is formed * γάρ, which has several distinct 
uses, with some that are transitional between these. 


a. Adverbially, γάρ makes the preceding word prominent, 
somewhat as ye does, while suggesting, like dpa, that the pre- 
ceding sentence has something to do with this prominence. 
Especially in questions yap denotes surprise, or some kindred 
emotion: τίς yap ἂν ῳήθη; why, who would have thought! 
D. 9, 68. γένοιτο yap ἄν τι καινότερον ; could there possibly be 
anything newer! Ὁ. 4, 10. Also in answers, or other state- 
ments positively made, with some reference to a preceding 
statement: 7 yap ἀνάγκη (AN. 1. 6, 8) or ἀνάγκη yap I must 
indeed ! 

With these belongs the use of γάρ in wishes (470 a, 477). 
γάρ in this group of uses may be called γάρ emotional. 


b. Often a narrative or explanation that has just been 
promised is introduced by γάρ explanatory. The nearest Eng- 
lish equivalent is namely ; sometimes we may translate by for 
example, that is; but more often English in such cases has no 
introductory word : ὑμᾶς εἰδὼς διδάξω. τὸ μὲν yap πλῆθος πολύ 
κτλ. I will explain to you. Their number is large, ete. 
An. 1. 7, 4. Whether this γάρ is an adverb or a conjunction it 
is difficult to say. 


6. As a conjunction, yap causal introduces a reason; the 
sentence with γάρ generally follows that for which it gives the 
cause. Sometimes the γάρ clause precedes or is inserted par- 
enthetically within the other sentence; yap may then usually 
be rendered since. 


ἃ, Καὶ γάρ is sometimes for even, for also, καὶ being adverb- 
ial and emphasizing the next following word; but more often 
καί ig a conjunction and γάρ adverbial, and in fact; sometimes 
it is impossible to determine which was the conjunction, καὶ 
γάρ having become a standing formula: 


673 


674 


675 


WORD-ORDER 291 


Τοῦτο ἐποίει ἐκ τοῦ χαλεπὸς εἶναι: καὶ yap ὁρᾶν στυγνὸς ἢν καὶ 
τῇ φωνῇ τρᾶχύς this he did by being severe ; his very appear- 
ance was disagreeable and his voice harsh. Ay. τι. 6,9. In 
ἀλλὰ γάρ the γάρ is almost always adverbial, but in fact, but 
really, but then. 


a. The particles * dpa, *otv, and (in poetry) enclitic *yuv or 
*yov are inferential, translated therefore, accordingly, so, as tt 
appears, unaccented now or then. δή sometimes approaches 
these in meaning (671 c). 


b. The syllable τοι- (not the same as * rou, 671 6), probably 
another form of the demonstrative τῷ, as a with or by dative, 
appears in * τοζνυν accordingly, well then, farther; also in τοι- 
γάρ, τοι-γάρ-τοι, τοι-γαρ-οῦν, More strongly inferential, therefore, 
and so, for just that reason. γάρ is here adverbial, the final 
-τοι Of τοι-γάρ-τοι is the enclitic (671 6). 


WORD-ORDER 


Hach language has its own ways of arranging words within 
the sentence, ways natural to the native speaker, but more or 
less strange at first to others. English, Greek, Latin, French, 
German, all differ considerably from one another in word- 
order. The following sections describe the more striking 
differences between Greek word-order and English. 


The order of words in Greek is much freer than in 
English, because Greek has fuller inflections. 


Thus the boy saw aman means one thing, a man saw the 
boy means another, saw a man the boy means nothing ; but 
the Greek could say ὃ παῖς εἶδεν ἄνδρα, ἄνδρα εἶδεν ὃ παῖς, εἶδεν 
ἄνδρα ὁ παῖς, or ἄνδρα ὃ παῖς εἶδεν, all with equal clearness, with 
no change ἴῃ. syntax or essential meaning, but merely with 
different emphasis. In English the word-order is the most 
important means of indicating syntax ; in Greek it serves this 
purpose to a far less extent, but is the chief means, along 
with particles, of indicating what we call rhetorical effects. 


676 


677 


678 


202 COMPLEX SENTENCES 


Certain requirements of position for certain words and mean- 
ings have been described above—the attributive and predicate 
positions (552, 555, 556), the special rule for ὅδε, οὗτος, ἐκεῖνος, 
etc. (553, 554 and a), the meanings of αὐτός according to its 
position (199), the fact that many words are postpositive (665- 
673), and that some particles throw their force on the preced- 
ing word (as μέν, δέ, ye, γοῦν, δή) while others throw their force 
on what follows (as καί, οὐδέ, μήν). Also, as in English, a 
preposition usually precedes its noun, a conjunction begins 
its clause, any word that looks back to a preceding clause is 
likely to stand near the beginning, any word that looks for- 
ward to the next clause is likely to stand near the end. These 
general requirements, and the necessity for clearness of syn- 
tax, take precedence of all other principles. 


The above requirements being met, and other things 
being equal, the more important precedes, the less 
important follows; the degree of importance dimin- 


ishes from the beginning of the clause to the end, the 


final place is that of least prominence. 


a. As regards the final place, this is the opposite of the 
rule in English, which makes the final place the most promi- 
nent. In reading English aloud—or Greek that one does not 
understand—the tendency is to put most stress on the last 
word; this must be reversed in reading Greek. In trans- 
lating, the relative prominence is sometimes best preserved in 
English by reversing the Greek order. 

b. A longer grammatical unit (sentence or clause) may be 
divided into smaller rhetorical units, each consisting of sev- 
eral words; the above rule then applies to each rhetorical 
member as well as to the whole clause. Thus the first word 
after a pause in Greek receives the prominence of a last word 
before a pause in English. 


The importance that determines order may be logical or emo- ὦ 
tional ; the two kinds are in most sentences more or less com- | 


679 


WORD-ORDER 293 


bined, and are not always clearly separable in thought. Logi- 
cal importance is relative prominence in a complex thought, 
viewed wholly without emotion, as a simple fact or a scientific 
statement ; the relative logical importance of the same ele- 
ments of a thought may vary with varying circumstances 
(679). But most things are looked upon with more or less of 
feeling, which may give them, to the speaker or listener, a 
relative importance very different from that of logic or of 
abstract thought; this is their emotional importance (680). 
The term emphasis denotes generally emotional importance, 
but is used also of marked logical importance. 


Order determined mainly by logical importance. 

a. Ἔστιν οὖν τραγῳδία μίμησις πράξεως σπουδαίας καὶ τελείᾶς, 
μέγεθος ἐχούσης, ἡδυσμένῳ λόγῳ, χωρὶς ἑκάστου τῶν εἰδῶν ἐν τοῖς 
μορίοις, δρώντων καὶ οὐ δι ἀπαγγελίας. This is Aristotle’s defini- 
tion of tragedy (Porr. 6). The preceding discussion (to which 
οὖν refers us) has included tragedy, and has reached the point 
where the question is now, not so much what tragedy is, but 
rather what tragedy 7s, in view of the preceding argument ; 
hence ἔστιν stands first. The central fact in the essence of 
tragedy is μίμησις imitative presentation; then follow the 
various restrictions, that gradually narrow the general state- 
ment down to a definition, proceeding always from the general 
to the particular. Jn its essence, then, tragedy is the repre- 
sentation of an action that has dignity, completeness, and mag- 
nitude, in artistic language, with each kind of verse kept sepa- 
rate in the parts, presented by people acting instead of through 
narrative. | 

b. General rules, applying this principle in detail, in the 
simple unemotional sentence, are : 

(1) An arrangement without emphasis is swbject, its modi- 
jiers, predicate, modifiers of the predicate. This often agrees 
closely with the English order. } 

(2) An adjective, or adnominal genitive, or appositive, 
unless for some reason emphatic, is apt to follow its noun. 


680 


294 COMPLEX SENTENCES 


But if the noun has the article, any attributive expression 
takes the attributive position (552). 

(3) Modifiers of a verb (except the negatives) are apt to 
follow the verb. 

(4) But circumstances may give special importance to a 
modifier, and therefore place it earlier. 


c. An example of simple narrative is : 


Ἐντεῦθεν ἐξελαύνει σταθμοὺς δύο παρασάγγᾶς δέκα εἰς Πέλτᾶς, 
πόλιν οἰκουμένην. ἐνταῦθ᾽ ἔμεινεν ἡμέρᾶς τρεῖς" ἐν αἷς Bevias ὁ “Ap- 
Kas τὰ Λύκαια ἔθυσε καὶ ἀγῶνα ἔθηκε: τὰ δὲ ἄθλα ἦσαν στλεγγίδες χρῦ- 
cal: ἐθεώρει δὲ τὸν ἀγῶνα καὶ Κῦρος. AN. 1. 2, 10. Here the de- 
monstratives ἐντεῦθεν and ἐνταῦθα, and the relative ἐν ais, point 
back to the preceding sentence and form the connection ; 
ἐξελαύνει and ἔμεινεν contain the central idea of these clauses; — 
the numeral follows its noun. Xenias is a new person intro- 
duced, who interrupts the monotony by a festival; the name 
of the festival, τὰ Λύκαια, is more important than toe, which 
was the regular verb denoting such a celebration ; so with 
ἀγῶνα and ἔθηκε. The prizes were strigils is our natural order 
also, but the relative importance of the pair στλεγγίδες xpicat 
is represented in English by the opposite order, golden strigils. 
In the last clause the important item was that the prince him- 
self was a spectator; ἐθεώρει is duly marked by its position, 
Κῦρος is made prominent by καί (cp. 681 b). 

In such simple narrative note that chronological order may 
often determine the order of presentation, when lucidity is a 
prime object. 


Order influenced by emotional prominence. 

‘Os μὲν στρατηγήσοντα ἐμὲ ταύτην τὴν στρατηγίᾶν μηδεὶς ὑμῶν 
λεγέτω let no one of you speak with the idea that I am going to 
act as yeneral in this plan of campaign. Ax. τ. 3, 15. στρατη- 
γήσοντα ἐμέ contains the central idea which the speaker wishes 
to remove from their minds; μέν looks forward to a following 
clause, to be contrasted with this. 


WORD-ORDER 995 


In Ay. 1. 4, 3, ἑπτακοσίους ἔχων ὁπλίτας and τετρακόσιοι ὁπλῖται, 
the stress laid on the numbers, which are somewhat contrasted 
with each other, places them before the nouns. In Ay. 1, 3, 17, 
βουλοίμην δ᾽ ἂν ἄκοντος ἀπιὼν Κύρου λαθεῖν αὐτὸν ἀπελθών 7 should 
wish, if Iam going away without Cyrus’s consent, to get away 
without his knowledge, ἄκοντος and λαθεῖν are contrasted and 
emphasized. In Ap. 40 d, θαυμάσιον κέρδος ἂν εἴη ὃ θάνατος a 
wonderful gain would death be, θαυμάσιον is the most em- 
phasized word and κέρδος next, while the subject, ὃ θάνατος, 
is here the least important, and might almost have been 
omitted. 

Sometimes, of two or more codrdinate expressions, which 
in English would be so arranged that the most important 
would come last, the first is in Greek plainly the most empha- 
sized : μὴ ἐφευρεθῇς ἄνους τε καὶ γέρων ἅμα lest thou be found both 
old and foolish too. 8. an. 281. 


a. When the clause is apparently complete, a new element 
—noun, pronoun, verb, but especially an adverb—may be 
added after a slight pause, as if an afterthought. The added 
word is then the first after a pause and is thereby made promi- 
nent, though it may be also the last in the clause ; it virtually 
makes a clause by itself. 


b. Sometimes a form of the periodic style, so common in 


- Latin, is followed in Greek also, when a more even stress and 


681 


an air of calm dignity is suitable: τὴν τῶν πέλας αὐτοὶ ἐπελθόντες 
ov χαλεπῶς ἐν TH ἀλλοτρίᾳ τοὺς περὶ τῶν οἰκείων ἀμυνομένους μαχό- 
μενοι τὰ πλείω κρατοῦμεν When we ourselves invade our γ161- 
bors territory, without difficulty, on alien soil, though against 
men who are acting in defense of their own, we more often 
prevail. T. 1. 89. This is the style of one who is conscious 
that every word is laden with meaning, and will be weighed. 


Since there are many ways of indicating the importance of 
words besides order, it often happens that an emphasized 
word stands where the order alone would leave it in the back- 
ground. Other means of emphasis are: 


682 


296 COMPLEX SENTENCES 


a. The personal pronouns ἐγώ, ov, ἡμεῖς, etc., also αὐτός 
standing alone in the nominative, or in any case in the predi- 
cate position, also ὅδε, οὗτος, or ἐκεῖνος used as a personal pro- 
noun in the nominative, are emphatic in any position. Thus 
in D. 1, 9, ηὐξήσαμεν, ὦ ἄνδρες ᾿Αθηναῖοι, Φίλιππον ἡμεῖς We OUT- 
selves, men of Athens, have given Philip his present power, 
ηὐξήσαμεν is emphasized strongly by position, ἡμεῖς by being 
expressed at all; the place at the end does not affect ἡμεῖς one 
way or the other—unless indeed a shght pause was made be- 
fore it (680 a). 


b. Adverbs and particles like καί, οὐδέ, μήν, δή, all indicate 
prominence. 


ὁ. Simple repetition, or the use of two synonyms for one 
idea, delays attention longer and so makes an idea prominent. 


d. Any form of parallelism in expression, whether of repe- 
tition or of contrast, calls attention to both members. Thus 
μέν and δέ, similarity of ending (ὁμοιοτέλευτον rime), and the 
use of the same word in different cases side by side (682 b), 
always give emphasis. In this way an important word may 
stand last without danger of being slighted. 


Certain combinations were so frequent that we may call them 
fashions of word-order. Especially noticeable are 


a. Chiasmus (“ criss-cross” order, from the shape of the 
letter X) reverses in the second of two parallel phrases the 
order of the first; this gives equal prominence to each mem- 
ber in both phrases: καλὸν τὸ ἄθλον καὶ ἡ ἐλπὶς μεγάλη noble is 
the prize and our hope great. Pu. 114 ο. 

καλὸν τὸ ἄθλον 
ἡ ἐλπὶς΄ “μεγάλη 

b. Two words of like sound or derivation but of contrasted 
meaning, or two forms of the same word in different construc- 
tions, are apt to be put near each other: τὰ τῶν θεῶν ἔντιμ᾽ ἀτῖ- 
μάσασ᾽ ἔχε what the gods honor, in dishonor hold. 8, an. 77. 


θ88 


WORD-ORDER 297 


6. When the same word is repeated in two contrasted mem- 
bers which contain μέν and δέ, the repeated word stands first, 
followed by μέν and δέξς This usage doubtless began with 
clauses in which the repeated word was emphatic; but it 
became the rule, as early as Homer, even when the repeated 
word was unimportant: πᾶσα μὲν ὁδὸς εὔπορος πᾶς δὲ ποταμὸς δια- 
βατός every road is easy, and every river can be crossed. AN. τι. 
5, 9. Here the contrast is not between πᾶσα and πᾶς, but 
between the remainder of the clauses, although every is an 
important idea. In Ay. 1. 2, 8, τριακοσίους μὲν ὁπλίτας TpLaKocious 
δὲ πελταστὰς ἔχων παρεγένετο, the importance of the number 
would not of itself have placed it first. 


ἃ, At the end of a clause an adjective and its noun are 
often separated by a verb-form. ‘This usually is the order 
that gives the natural emphasis; but it came to be sometimes 
little more than a rhetorical fashion: εἰ τούυν ὁ Φίλιππος τότε 
ταύτην ἔσχε τὴν γνώμην, οὐκ ἂν τοσαύτην ἐκτήσατο δύναμιν if then 
Philip at that time had adopted this opinion, he would not have 
acquired so great power. 10. 4, 5. 


Finally, considerations of euphony, especially of rhythm, often 
affected word-order, as in English; but this influence is diffi. 
cult for us to trace in prose, because Greek prose rhythm (like 
that of verse) was determined by the quantity of the syllables, 
which we feel less strongly than the Greeks did. 


ABBREVIATIONS 


In citing examples 


A. = Aischylos (Wecklein), L. = Lysias, 
A., Agamemnon, Men. = Menander. 
c., Choephoroi, Plato is cited thus: 
E., Kumenides, Ap. = Apology, 
p., Persians, Cr. == Crites 
ps., Prometheus Bound, Gor. = Gorgias, 
S., Seven against Thebes, Pu. = Phaedo, 

Ar. = Aristophanes (Bergh), Pr. = Protagoras, 
N., Nubes (Clouds), Rep. = Republic. 
R., Ranae (Frogs), Puut. Cages. = Plutarch’s Caesar. 
v., Vespae (Wasps). S. = Sophokles (Jedd), 

CIA. = Corpus Inscriptionum Atti- AL, Aias, 

carum. AN., Antigone, 

17). = Demosthenes. E., Elektra, 

E. = Kuripides (Mauch), ot., Oedipus Tyrannus, 
AL., Alkestis, oK., Oedipus at Kolonos, 
AND., Andromache, p., Philoktetes. 

B., Bacchae, T. = Thukydides. 

HIPP., Hippolytos, Xenophon is cited thus: 

1A., Iphigenia at Aulis, ΑΝ. = Anabasis, 

11., Iphigenia among the Tau- C. = Cyropaedia, 
rians, H. = Hellenica, 

M., Medea. M. = Memorabilia, 

Epicu. = Epicharmos. . = Oeconomicus. 


Most of the other abbreviations need no explanation ;-but ep. = com- 
pare, impf. = imperfect, impv. = imperative, κτλ. = καὶ τὰ λοιπά = and so ~ 
forth. 

298 


VERB-LIST 


Nott.—This list is intended to contain all verbs of classical Attic 
Greek whose forms can cause difficulty to the student. But rare forms 
are sometimes omitted, especially such as occur only in lyric parts of the 
drama, or in works not likely to be read until the student is beyond 
dependence on an elementary grammar. In many doubtful cases it 
seemed better to err on the side of inclusion rather than of omission. 
The forms that belonged to prose or to spoken Attic are in full-faced 
type ; those in ordinary type belonged to poetry. Yet in some cases a 
simple verb that appears only in composition in prose is recorded as a 
prose form ; also verbs in -cow, -rtw, are recorded with oo, though the 
regular prose form had tr. The class of the present system is given 
after the verb-stem, unless the present belongs to the formative-vowel 
class or to the root-class, 


“Ayapat (ἀγα-, 365 and a) admire, ἠγάσθην. 
ἀγγέλλω (ayyed-, tcl.) annownce, ἀγγελῶ, ἤγγειλα, ἤγγελκα, ἤγγελμαι, ἠγγέλθην. 
ἀγείρω (ayep-, cl.) gather, ἤγειρα. 
ἄγνῦμι (ἀγ-» dy-, nas. cl.) break, ἄξω, taka, tayo, ἐάγην. 
ἄγω (ay-) lead, ἄξω, ἤγαγον (350, 10), Axa, ἦγμαι, ἤχθην. 
ἀείρω (dep-, ν cl.) lift, older form of αἴρω, which see. 
ἄδω (δ-, for ἀειδ-) sing, ᾷἄσομαι, Toa, ἤσθην. 
αἰδέομαι (αἰδε-) and αἴδομαι (aid-) respect, αἰδέσομαι, ἤδεσμαι, ἠδέσθην. 
αἰνέω (αἰνε:η-) praise, αἰνέσω, ἤνεσα, ἤνεκα, ἤνημαι, ἠνέθην. 
αἱρέω (atpe:n-, ἕλ-) seize, αἱρήσω, εἶλον (350, 9), Lenka, ἕρημαι, ἡρέθην. 
αἴρω (ἀρ-» υ cl.) lift, ἀρῶ, ἦρα, ἦρκα, ἦρμαι, ἤρθην. 
᾿ αἰσθάνομαι (αἰσθ-, aioOn-, nas. cl.) perceive, αἰσθήσομαι, ῃσθόμην, ἤσθημαι, 
ἀΐσσω (ἀϊκ-, ι 61.) and ᾷσσω rush, ait» and ἄξω, ἤϊξα and pga. 
αἰσχύνω (aloxuv-, ι ο]., 421) shame, αἰσχυνῶ, ἤσχῦνα, ῃσχύνθην. 
ἀκούω (ἀκου-) hear, ἀκούσομαι, ἤκουσα, ἀκήκοα (291 c), ἠκούσθην. 
ἀλείφω (ἀλιφ-, ἀλειφ-) anoint, ἀλείψω, ἤλειψα, ἀλήλιφα (291 ο), ἀλήλιμμαι, 
ἠλείφθην. 
299 


300 GREEK GRAMMAR 


ἀλέξω (ἀλεΐξ-, ddex-) ward off, ἀλέξομαι, ἡλεξάμην. 

ἁλίσκομαν (ἀλ-» ἁλο:ω-» incep. cl.) am captured, ἁλώσομαι, ἑάλων or ἥλων (267, 
869 ο), ἑᾶλωκα Or ἥλωκα. 

ἀλλάσσω (ἀλλαγ-» νυ cl.) change, ἀλλάξω, ἤλλαξα, ἤλλαχα, ἤλλαγμαι (345), 
ἠλλάχθην and ἠλλάγην. 

ἅλλομαι (GA-, tcl.) leap, ἁλοῦμαι (324) ἡλάμην. 

ἀλύσκω (for ἀλυκ-σκω, ἀλυκ-, Cp. διδάσκω, incep. cl.) avoid, ἀλύξω, ἤλυξα. 

ἁμαρτάνω (ἁμαρτ-, ἁμαρτη-, nas. cl.) 6727, ἁμαρτήσομαι, ἥμαρτον, ἡμάρτηκα, 
ἡμάρτημαι, ἡμαρτήθην. 

ἀμπ-ἔέχω and ᾿ἀμπ-ίσχω (ἀμφί + ἔχω, ἴσχω) wrap about, put on, ἀμφέξω, ἤμπι- 
σχον. Mid. ἀμπέχομαι, ἀμπίσχομαι, ἀμπισχνέομαι have on, ἀμφέξομαι, ἠμπ- 
ισχόμην and ἠμπ-εσχόμην (cp. 268 d). 

ἀμπλακίσκω (ἀμπλακ-, ἀμπλακη-. incep. Cl.) Miss, ἤμπλακον, ἠμπλάκημαι. 

ἀμύνω (apuv-, υ cl.) ward off, ἀμυνῶ, ἤμῦνα. 

ἀμφι-γνοέω doubt, impf. ἠμφ-εγνόουν (268 ἃ), ἠμφ-εγνόησα. 

ἀνα-βιώσκομαι : 566 βιόω. 

ἀν-ἀλίσκω (-ἀλ-, -ἀλο:ω-» incep. cl.) and av-GAdw spend, ἀν-ἀλώσω, ἀν-ήλωσα, 
ἀν-ήλωκα, ἀν-ήλωμαι, ἀν-ηλώθην. 

ἀν-οίγνύμι, ἀν-οίγω (see οἴγνύῦμι) open, impf. ἀνέῳγον (267 a), ἀν-οίξω, ἀν-έῳξα 
(267 a), ἀν-έῳχα (291 a), ἀν-έῳγμαι, ἀν-εῴχθην (subjv. ἀν-οιχθῶ, etc.). 

ἀνύω (dvu-) sometimes ἁνύω, also avitw accomplish, avicw, ἥνυσα, ἤνυκα, 
ἤνυσμαι. : 

ἄνωγα (ἀνωγ-) command, root perf. (370), with pres. meaning, ἄνωγας, ἄνωγε, 
iImpvV. ἄνωχθι, ἄνωχθε. 

ἀπ-εχθάνομαι (-ἐχθ-, nas. cl.) become odious, ἀπ-εχθήσομαι, ἀπ-ηχθόμην, ἀπ- 
ἤχθημαι. RES tot 

ἅπτω (ap-, τ cl.) fasten, kindle, ἅψω, nya, ἡμμαι, ἥφθην. 

ἀραρίσκω (ap-, incep. cl.) fil, ἦρσα, ἤραρον, &papa. 

ἀράσσω (apay-, tcl.) bang, slam, ἀράξω, ἤραξα, ἠράχθην. 

ἀρέσκω (ape-, incep. cl.) please, ἀρέσω, ἤρεσα, ἠρέσθην. 

apkéw (apKe-) assist, suffice, ἀρκέσω, ἤρκεσα. 

ἁρμόζω, ἁρμόττω (appor-, υ cl.) fit, ἁρμόσω͵ ἥρμοσα, ἥρμοσμαι, ἡρμόσθην. 

ἄρνυμαι (ἀρ-, nas. cl.) win, ἀροῦμαι, ἠρόμην. 

ἀρόω (ἀρο-) ρίοιυ, ἤροσα, ἠρόθην. 

ἁρπάζω (ἁρπαγ-, ἁρπαδ-, ι cl.) seize, -Ὡρπάσομαι and -ἁρπάσω, ἥρπασα, ἥρ- 
TAKA, ἥρπασμαι, ἡρπάσθην. 

ἀρύω (ἀρυ-) and ἀρύτω draw water, ἤρυσα, ἠρύθην. 

ἄρχω (apx-) am first, begin, rule, ἄρξω, ἦρξα, ἦργμαι, ἤρχθην. 

αὐαίνω, αὑαίνω (abav-, cl.) dry, αὑανῶ, ninva, ηὐάνθην. 

αὐξάνω (αὐξ-, αὐξη-, nas. cl.) and αὔξω increase, αὐξήσω, ηὔξησα, ηὔξηκα, 
ηὔξημαι, ηὐξήθην. 

ἄχθομαι (ἀχθ-, ἀχθεσ-) am veut, ἀχθέσομαι, ἠχθέσθην. 


VERB-LIST 901 


Βαίνω (Ba:y-, Bav-, ι cl.) go, βήσομαι (βήσω causative), ἔβην (369 a), ἔβησα 
(causative), βέβηκα, -BéBapar, -ἐβάθην. 

βάλλω (βαλ-, BAy-, κι cl.) throw, βαλῶ, ἔβαλον (350, 4), βέβληκα, βέβλημαι, 
ἐβλήθην. 

Barre (βαφ-, τ cl.) dip, Bao, ἔβαψα, βέβαμμαι, ἐβάφην, ἐβάφθην. 

βαστάζω (βασταδ-, ι cl.) carry, βαστάσω, ἐβάστασα. 

βιβάζω (βιβαδ-, v cl.) make go (causative of βαίνω), βιβάσω and βιβῶ (346 b), 
-€B(Baca. 

βιβρώσκω (Bpo:w-, incep. cl.) eat, βέβρωκα, βέβρωμαι. 

Bidw (Bio:w-) live, βιώσομαι, ἐβίων (369 c), BeBlwxa, βεβίωμαι. ἀνα-βιώσκομαι 
revive, ἀνεβίωσα, av-eBlov. 

βλάπτω (BAaB-, τ cl.) enjure, βλάψω, ἔβλαψα, βέβλαφα, βέβλαμμαι, ἐβλάφθην, 
ἐβλάβην. 

βλαστάνω (βλαστ-, βλαστη-, nas. cl.) sprout, βλαστήσω, ἔβλαστον, (β)έβλάσ- 
THK. 

βλέπω (βλεπ-) Zook, βλέψομαι, ἔβλεψα. 

βούλομαι (βουλ-, βουλη-) wish, βουλήσομαι, βεβούλημαι, ἐβουλήθην (266). 

βρέχω (Bpex-) wet, ἔβρεξα, βέβρεγμαι, ἐβρέχθην. 

βρίθω (Bpid-) am heavy, βρίσω, ἔβρισα, βέβριθα. 

βρύχάομαι (Bpvx-, βρύχα:η-) bellow, βέβρῦχα, βρυχηθείς. 

βυνέω (Bu:v-, nas. cl.) stop up, βύσω, ἔβῦσα, βέβυσμαι. 


Γαμέω (yop-, γαμε:η-) marry (act. of a man, mid. of a woman), yap, ἔγημα, 
γεγάμηκα, γεγάμημαι. 

γέγωνα, pf. with pres. meaning, (γων-) shout, also γεγωνέω (yeywve:n-) and 
γεγωνίσκω (yeywr-, incep. cl.), γεγωνήσω, ἔγεγώνησα. 

γελάω (yeda-) laugh, γελάσομαι (322), ἐγέλασα, ἐγελάσθην. 

γηθέω (γηθ-, γηθε:η-) rejoice, γηθήσω, ἐγήθησα, γέγηθα. 

γηράσκω (γηρᾶ-, incep. cl.), also γηράω (γηρα-) grow old, γηρᾶσω, ἐγήρᾶσα, 
γεγήρᾶκα. 

γίγνομαι (yev-, yov-, γενη-» 257 a) become, γενήσομαι, ἐγενόμην, γέγονα, γεγέ- 
νημαι. For γεγώς see 870, (9). 

γιγνώσκω (yvo:w-, incep. cl.) come to know, recognize, γνώσομαι, ἔγνων (366, 
367), ἔγνωκα, ἔγνωσμαι, ἐγνώσθην. 

γράφω (γραφ-) mark, write, γράψω, ἔγραψα, γέγραφα, γέγραμμαι, ἐγράφην. 
(See 341, 346.) 


Δάκνω (Sax-, δηκ-, nas. cl.) bite, δήξομαι, ἔδακον, δέδηγμαι, ἐδήχθην. 
δαρθάνω (δαρθ-, δαρθη-, nas. cl.) sleep, ἔδαρθον, δεδάρθηκα. 

δέδοικα, δέδια, 370, (5). 

ϑείκνύμι (δεικ-, nas. cl.) μοΐνιέ at, 358-360. 

δέρκομαι (Sepx-, Sopx-, Spax-) see, ἔδρακον, δέδορκα (466 ο). 


902 GREEK GRAMMAR 


Sépw (Sep-, Sap-) skin, flay, Sep, ἔδειρα, δέδαρμαι, ἐδάρην. 

δέχομαι (Sex-) receive, δέξομαι, ἐδεξάμην, δέδεγμαι, ἐδέχθην. 

δέω (δε: η-) Lind, ϑήσω, ἔδησα, δέδεκα, δέδεμαι, ἐδέθην. 

δέω (Se-, δεη-) Lack, δεήσω, ἐδέησα, δεδέηκα. Impers. Set there is need, δεήσει, 
ἐδέησε. Dep. δέομαι ask, request, δεήσομαι, δεδέημαι, ἐδεήθην. 

διαιτάω (διαιτα:η-) diet, arbitrate, Satire, ἐδιήτησα, δεδιήτηκα, δεδιήτημαι, 
ἐδιῃτήθην. 

διδάσκω (διδαχ-» incep. cl., 260 b) teach, διδάξω, ἐδίδαξα, δεδίδαχα, δεδίδαγμαι, 
ἐδιδάχθην. 

-διδράσκω (Spa:a-, incep. cl.) run away, -δρἄᾶσομαι, -ἔδραν (369 a), -δέδρᾶκα. 

δίδωμι, 372, 375. 

διψάω (Supain, 320) thirst, διψήσω, ἐδίψησα. 

διώκω (διωκ-) purse, διώξομαι, ἐδίωξα, δεδίωχα, δεδίωγμαι, ἐδιώχθην. 

δοκέω (Sox-, δοκε:η-) think, seem, δόξω, ἔδοξα, δέδογμαι, ἐδόχθην. Also δοκήσω, 
ἐδόκησα, δεδόκηκα, δεδόκημαι, ἐδοκήθην. 

δραμοῦμαι : see τρέχω. 

δράσσομαι (Spay-, ι cl.) grasp, ἐδραξάμην, δέδραγμαι. 

δράω (Spa:a-) do, δράσω, ἔδρᾶσα, δέδρᾶκα, δέδρᾶμαι, ἐδράσθην. 

δύναμαν (Suva:y-, 266, 365 a) can, δυνήσομαι, δεδύνημαι, ἐδυνήθην. 

δύω (Sv:v-) enter, ϑύσω (causative), ἔδυσα (causative), ἔδυν (366, 367), δέδυκα, 
δέδυκα, δέδυμαι, ἐδύθην. 


> Edw (ἐα:ἅ-, 267) let, permit, ἐάσω, daca, elaxa (291 a), εἴᾶμαι, εἰάθην. 

ἐγείρω (€yep-, éyop-, éyp-, ν 61.) rouse, waken, ἐγερῶ, ἤγειρα, ἠγρόμην, ἐγρήγορα 
(291 ο, 332) am awake, ἔγήγερμαι (291 ο), ἠγέρθην. 

ἔδομαι, ἐδήδοκα : see ἐσθίω. 

€Couat (ἕδ- for σεδ-, ε cl.) sit, chiefly in comp. with κατά. See καθέζομαι. 

ἐθέλω and θέλω (ed-, ἐθελη-) am willing, ἐθελήσω, θελήσω, ἠθέλησα, ἠθέληκα, 

ἐθίζω (ἐθιδ-, κι cl., 267), accustom, ἐθιῶ (346 a), εἴθισα, εἴθικα (291 a), εἴθισμαι, 
εἰθίσθην. 

εἶδον : see ὁράω. 

εἰδώς (172). εἰδέναι: see οἶδα. 

εἰκάζω (eixad-, ν΄ cl.) make like, conjecture, εἰκάσω, εἴκασα or ἤκασα, εἴκασμαι 
or ἤκασμαι, εἰκάσθην. 

εἰκώς : 566 ἔοικα. 

εἰμν am, 384; εἶμν go, 385. 

εἶπον (εἰπ-» aor.) sazd, 350, 8, and 351; for other tenses see φημι. 

e(pyvope (εἷργ-, nas. cl.), also eipyw shut in, εἵρξω, εἶρξα, elpypar, εἴρχθην. 

elpyw (εἰργ-) shut out, εἴρξω, etc., like the preceding, except in the breathing. 

εἴωθα am accustomed, plup. εἰώθειν, 456 c. 

ἐλαύνω (ἔλα-, nas. cl.) drive, ἐλῶ (322 c), ἤλασα, ἐλήλακα (291 c), ἐλήλαμαι, 
ἠλάθην. 


VERB-LIST 308 


ἐλέγχω (ἐλεγχ-) fest, ἐλέγξω, ἤλεγξα, ἐλήλεγμαι (344 b), ἠλέγχθην. 

ἑλεῖν, εἷλον : see αἱρέω. 

ἐλεύσομαι, ἐλήλυθα : 566 ἔρχομαι. 

ἐλθεῖν, ἦλθον : 566 ἔρχομαι, 

ἑλίσσω (ἑλικ-» ι cl., 267) and εἱλίσσω wind, ἑλίξω and εἱλίξω, εἵλιξα, εἵλιγμαι, 
εἱλίχθην. 

ἕλκω (ἑλκ-, ἑλκυ-, 267), ἕλξω, εἵλκυσα, εἵλκυκα (201 a), εἵλκυσμαι, εἱλκύσθην. 
Later, ἑλκύω, ἑλκύσω. 

ἐλπίζω (ἐλπιδ-, ι cl.) expect, hope, ἤλπισα, ἠλπίσθην. 

ἐμέω (ἐμ-» ἐμε-) vomit, ἐμοῦμαι, ἤμεσα. 

ἐμπολάω (ἐμπολα:η-) get by trade, trade in, ἡμπόληκα, ἠμπολήθην. 

ἐναντιόομαι, 268 b. 

ἐνεγκεῖν, ἤνεγκα, ἤνεγκον, ἐνήνοχα, ἐνήνεγμαι : see φέρω. 

ἐνέπω (ἐν + σεπ-, ἐπ-, σπ-), alSO ἐννέπω (for ἐν-σεπω), ἔνι-σπον (ἐνί-σπω, ἐνί- σποιμι, 
ἐνί-σπες like σχές and ἐπί-σχες, ἐνι- σπεῖν). 

ἐνθυμέομαι (ἐν + θύμε:η-) Lear in mind, ἐνθήμήσομαι, ἐντεθύμημαι, ἐνεθυμή- 
θην. 

ἕννῦμι (ἕ-, older ἔεσ-, Lat. ves-tvo, nas. cl.) clothe, partic. efuevos. In prose 
ἀμφιέννυμι, ἀμφιῶ (for ἀμφιέσω, like τελέω, 322 0), ἀμφιέσομαι, ἠμφίεσα 
(268 ο), ἠμφίεσμαι. 

ἐνοχλέω (ἐν + ὀχλε:η-, 268 d) annoy, ἠνώχλησα, ἠνώχληκα, ἠνώχλημαι. 

ἔοικα (ἰκ-ν eik-, οἰκ-) am like, 370, (6). 

ἑορτάζω (Eopras-, ucl.) keep festival, impf. ἑώρταζον. 

ἐπείγω (ἔπειγ-) press forward, ἔπείξομαι, ἠπείχθην. 

ἐπιμελέομαι, ἔπιμέλομαι ; 566 μέλω. 

ἐπίσταμαι (ἐπιστα:η-, 365 and a) understand, ἔπιστήσομαι, ἠπιστήθην. 

ἕπομαι (ἕπ- for σεπ-, σπ-, 267) follow, ἕψομαι, ἑσπόμην (σπῶμαι, σποίμην, 
σποῦ, σπέσθαι, σπόμενος). 

ἐράω and ἔραμαι (ἐρα-) love, ἠράσθην. 

ἐργάζομαι (ἐργαδ-»ι ο]., 267) work, ἐργάσομαι, εἰργασάμην, εἴργασμαι, εἰργάσθην. 

ἔρδω (ἐρδ-, ἐργ-) do, Aer pow and pew (fey-, « cl.), ἔρξω and ῥέξω, ἔρξα and 
ἔρεξα. 

ἐρείδω (ἐρειδ-) prop, ἐρείσω, ἤρεισα, ἤρεικα, ἐρήρεισμαι (291 c), ἠρείσθην. 

ἐρείπω (ἐριπ-, ἐρειπ-) throw down, ἐρείψω, ἤριπον, ἐρήριπα (291 0), ἐρήριμμαι, 
ἐρείφθην. 

ἐρίζω (ἐριδ-» τ cl.) contend, ἤρισα. 

ἕρπω (épm-, 267) go, creep, tppw. Also ἑρπύζω, εἵρπυσα. 

ἔρρω (ἐρρ-, ἐρρη-) go, begone, ἐρρήσω, ἤρρησα. 

ἐρύκω (ἐρῦκ-) hold back, ἤρύξα. 

ἔρχομαι (épx-, ἐλευθ-, ἔλυθ-, ἐλθ-} Go, ἐλεύσομαι, ἦλθον (ἐλθέ, 349 a), and ἤλυθον, 
ἐλήλυθα (291 ο). 


ἐρῶ, εἴρηκα, ἐρρήθην : sce φημι, 


904 ᾿ . GREEK GRAMMAR 


ἐρωτάω (ἐρωτα;:η-) ask, ἐρωτήσω, ἠρώτησα, ἠρώτηκα. But the common fut. 
and aor, are (from €p-, ἐρη-) ἐρήσομαι, ἠρόμην, of which the pres. ἔρομαι 
is rare. 

ἐσθίω (ἐσθι-, ἐδ-, ἐδε-», E50-, pay-) ca’, Hopar (without fut. suffix), wien ἐδή- 
δοκα, ἐδήδεσμαι, ἠδέσθην. 

ἑσπόμην : see ἕπομαι. 

ἑστιάω (ἑστια:ἃ-, 267), εστίαᾶσα, εἱστίᾶκα (291 a), εἱστίᾶμαι, εἱστιάθην. 

εὕδω (εὑδ-, εὕδη-) sleep, εὑδήσω, -εὕδησα. Commonly καθεύδω, which see. 

εὑρίσκω (εὗρ-» εὑρε:η-» incep. cl.) find, εὑρήσω, ηὗρον, ηὕρηκα; ηἵρημαι, ηὑρέθην. 

εὐφραίνω (εὐφραν-) cheer, εὐφρανῶ, nippava, ηὐφράνθην. 

εὔχομαι (εὐχ-) pray, εὔξομαι, ηὐξάμην, ηὗγμαι, 

ἐχθαίρω (ἐχθαρ-) hate, ἐχθαροῦμαι, ἤχθηρα. 

ἔχω (σεχ-» ἐχ-» ἐχ-» TX-» σχε:η-) Have, ἕξω and σχήσω, ἔσχον (350, 6), ἔσχηκα, 
ἔσχημαι, ἐσχέθην. Also pres. ἴσχω for σισεχω, 257 a. 

ἕψω (ἐψ-, aby) Loil, ἑψήσω, ἥψησα. 


Ζάω, 320. 

ζεύγνυμι (Lvy-, ἵευγ-», nas. cl.) join, yoke, ἵζεύξω, ἔζευξα, ἔζευγμαι, ἐζεύχθην, 
ἐζύγην. ; 

ἵέω (ζε-) δοῖΐ, intr., ζέσω, ἔζεσα. 

ζώννῦμι (ζω-, nas. cl.) gird, ἔζωσα, ἔζωμαι and ἔζωσμαι.᾿ 


“Ἤδομαι (ἡδ-) am pleased, ἥσθην. 
ἥμαι, 388, 389. : 
ἦμι, ἣν, ἢ, 383. 


Θάλλω (θαλ-, θηλ-, u cl.) bloom, flourish, τέθηλα with. present meaning 
(456 b). ᾿ 
θάπτω (θαπ-, ταφ-, 47 ἃ, 7 cl.) bury, θάψω, ἔθαψα, τέθαμμαι, ἐτάφην. 
θαυμάζω (θαυμαδ-, κι cl.) wonder, θαυμάσομαι, ἐθαύμασα, τεθαύμακα, ἐθαυ- 
μάσθην. 
θέλω : 566 ἐθέλω. 
θέω (Bev-, θε-) run, θεύσομαι. 
Alte (Qry-, nas. cl.) towch, θίξομαι, ἔθιγον. 
θλίβω (PATB-, OALB-) squeeze, θλίψω, ἔθλτψα, τέθλτμμαι, ἐθλίφϑην, ἐθλίβην. 
A ba for θνη-ἰσκὼ (θαν-, Ovn-, incep. cl.) die, θανοῦμαι, ἔθανον, τέθνηκα (370, 
4), τεθνήξω (364). In prose regularly ἀποθνήσκω. 
ΠῚ ἔθρεξα : 566 τρέχω. 
θρέψω, ἔθρεψα : 566 τρέφω. 
θρύπτω (θρυπ- τ cl.) weaken, θρύψω, ἔθρυψα, τέθρυμμαι. 
θρῴσκω (θορ-, θρω-, incep. cl.) leap, θοροῦμαι, ἔθορον. 
θύω (θυ:-) sacrifice, θύσω, ἔθυσα, τέϑυκα, τέθυμαι, ἐτύθην (47 ©). 


VERB-LIST 305 


᾿Ιδεῖν, εἶδον : see ὁράω. 

ἵζω (if-, ἱζη-), chiefly in comp. with kara: see καθίζω. 

ἕημι (En-) send, How, ἧκα (378), εἶκα, εἶμαι, εἴθην, 374, 375. 

ἱκνέομαι (ik-, nas. cl.) come, ἵξομαι, tkopnv, ἴγμαι, In prose usually ἀφ- 
ικνέομαι. 

- ἑλάσκομαι (λα-» incep. cl.) propitiate, ἱλάσομαι, ἑλασάμην, ἑλάσθην. 

ἴσμεν, ἴσᾶσι, 386. 

ἵστημι (στα;:η-) set, station, στήσω, ἔστησα, ἔστην, ἕστηκα (plup. sometimes 
εἱστήκη), ἐστάθην. 362-364, 366, 367. 

ἴσχω : see ἔχω. 


Καθαίρω (καθαρ-, τ cl.) cleanse, καθαρῶ, ἐκάθηρα and ἐκάθαρα, κεκάθαρμαι, 
ἐκαθάρθην. 

καθέζομαι (κατα + ἐδ-, κι cl.) δέ, impf. ἐκαθεζόμην (268 c) and καθεζόμην, καθε- 
δοῦμαι (for καθεδέσομαι). Cp. καθίζω. 

καθεύδω (κατα + εὑδ-, εὑδη-) sleep (impf., see 268 ο). καθευδήσω. 

κάθημαι, 389. 

καθίζω (κατά + ἰζ-, ἱζη-) seat, sit, καθιῶ (cp. 346 a), καθιζήσομαι, ἐκάθισα 
(268 c) and καθῖσα. Cp. καθέζομαι. 

καίνω (καν-, + Cl.) Kill, κανῶ, ἔκανον. Only in the compound κατακαίνω in 
prose. 

καίω, KG (kav-, KG-,t cl., 259 6) burn, Katow, tkavoa, κέκαυκα, KéKaupat, 

᾿ ἐκαύθην. 

καλέω (καλε-, κλη-) cal], καλῶ (822 ο), ἐκάλεσα, κέκληκα, κέκλημαι, ἐκλήθην. 

καλύπτω (καλυβ-, τ cl.) cover, καλύψω, ἐκάλυψα, κεκάλυμμαι, ἐκαλύφθην. 

κάμνω (καμ-» κμη-») nas. cl.) labor, am tired, καμοῦμαι, ἔκαμον, κέκμηκα. 

κάμπτω (καμπ- τ Cl.) bend, κάμψω, ἔκαμψα, κέκαμμαι, ἐκάμφθην. 

κεῖμαι, 387. 

κείρω (Kep-, kap-, t cl.) shear, κερῶ, ἔκειρα, κέκαρμαι. 

κελεύω (keAev-) Did, κελεύσω, ἐκέλευσα, κεκέλευκα, κεκέλευσμαι, ἐκελεύσθην. 

κέλλω (κελ-, ε. Cl.) bring to shore, κέλσω, ἔκελσα. ΟΡ. ὀκέλλω. 

κεράννῦμι (kepa-, KpG-) mix, ἐκέρασα, κέκραᾶμαι, ἐκράθην and ἐκεράσθην. 

κερδαίνω (kepSav-, τ cl.) gain, κερδανῶ, ἐκέρδᾶνα (327 a). 

KevOw (κευθ-) hide, κεύσω, ἔκευσα, κέκευθα (456 b). 

κήδομαι (kyS-, κηδε-) sorrow, care for, ἐκηδεσάμην. 

κηρύσσω (kynpux-, κι cl.) proclaim, κηρύξω, éxhpita, κεκήρῦχα, κεκήρυγμαι, ἐκη- 
ρύχθην. 

κιγχάνω (κίχ-, κιχη-, nas. cl.) reach, κιχήσομαι, ἔκιχον. 

κίχρημι (xpa:n-) lend, mid. borrow, χρήσω, ἔχρησα, κέχρηκα, κέχρημαι. 

κλάζω (κλαγγ-, « cl., 259 ἃ) resound, κλάγξω, ἔκλαγξα, κέκλαγγα. 

κλαίω, κλάω (κλαυ-, KAG-, τ cl.) weep, κλαύσομᾶι, ἔκλαυσα, κέκλαυμαι., 

κλάω (κλα-}) break, ἔκλασα, κέκλασμαι, ἐκλάσθην. 

20 


900 GREEK GRAMMAR 


κλέπτω (κλεπ-, κλαπ-, KAoT-, T Cl.) steal, κλέψω, ἔκλεψα, κέκλοφα, κέκλεμμαι, 
ἐκλάπην. 

κλήω and κλείω (κλῃ-» κλει-) shut, κλήσω, ἔκλῃσα, κέκλῃκα, κέκλῃμαι, ἐκλῇσθην. 
Also κλείσω, ἔκλεισα, etc. 

κλίνω (κλιν-» κλι-» υ0].) lean, κλινῶ, ἔκλῖνα, κέκλιμαι, ἐκλίθην, ἐκλίνην. 

κναίω (κναι-) scratch, κναίσω, ἔκναισα, κέκναικα, κέκναισμαι, ἐκναίσθην. 

κνάω (kva:y-, 320) scrape, ἔκνησα, ἐκνήσθην. 

κομίζω (κομιδ-, νυ cl.) carry, κομιῶ (346 a), ἐκόμισα, κεκόμικα, κεκόμισμαι, ἐκο- 
μίσθην. 

κόπτω (κοπ-» T Cl.) cul, κόψω, ἔκοψα, κέκοφα, κέκομμαι, ἐκόπην. 

κορέννῦμι late (κορε-, nas. cl.) sate, κεκόρεσμαι, ἐκορέσθην. 

κράζω (kpay-, Kpay-, v cl.) cry oul, ἔκραγον, κέκρᾶγα. 

κραίνω (kpay-, « cl.) accomplish, κρανῶ, ἔκρᾶνα, ἐκράνθην. 

κρέμαμαι (κρεμα:η-) Lang, intr., κρεμήσομαι. 

κρεμάννῦμι (kpepa-, nas. cl.) hang, trans., κρεμῶ, ἐκρέμασα, ἐκρεμάσθην. 

κρίνω (κριν-» Kpt-, tcl.) judge, κρινῶ, ἔκρινα, κέκρικα, κέκριμαι, ἐκρίθην. 

κρούω (κρου-) beat, κρούσω, ἔκρουσα, κέκρουκα, κέκρου(σ)μαι, ἐκρούσθην. 

κρύπτω (κρυφ-; τ Cl.) hide, κρύψω, ἔκρυψα, κέκρυμμαι, ἐκρύφθην, ἐκρύφην. 

κτάομαι (κτα:η-) acquire, κτήσομαι, ἐκτησάμην, κέκτημαν (rarely ἔκτημαι) 
possess (456 b). 

κτείνω (κτεν-, κταν-, KTOV-, UCl.) Kill, κτενῶ, ἔκτεινα, ἔκτανον, ἀπ-έκτονα; EKTay, 
(κτα:ᾶ-, 369 a). Also ἀπο-κτίννυμι (κτι-). 

κτίζω (κτιδ-, « cl.) found, κτίσω, ἔκτισα, ἔκτισμαι, ἐκτίσθην. 

κυλίω (KvAT-) and κυλίνδω (κυλινδ-) roll, ἐκύλισα, κεκύλϊίσμαι, ἐκυλίσθην. 

κυνέω (ku-, nas. cl.) kiss, ἔκυσα. προσκυνέω (-κυνε:η-) do homage, regular. 

κύπτω (kup-, τ Cl.) stoop, κύψω, ἔκυψα, κέκυφα. 

κυρέω (κυρ-, κυρε-) happen, κύρσω and κυρήσω, ἔκυρσα and ἐκύρησα. 


«Λαγχάνω (Aax-, Anx-, nas. cl.) get by lot, λήξομαι, ἔλαχον, εἴληχα (291 Ὁ), 
εἴληγμαι, ἐλήχθην. 

λαμβάνω (AaB-, AnB-, nas. cl.) dake, λήψομαι, ἔλαβον (350, 1), εἴληφα (291 bd), 
εἴλημμαι, ἐλήφθην. 

λάμπω (λαμπ-) shine, λάμψω, ἔλαμψα, λέλαιιπα. 

λανθάνω (λαθ-, ληθ-, nas. cl.) lie hid, escape the notice of, λήσω, ἔλαθον, 
λέληθα, λέλησμαι. Also λήθω. 

λάσκω (for λακ-σκω, λακ-, λᾶκ-, λακη-, incep. cl.) speak, λακήσομαι, ἐλάκησα and 
ἔλακον, λέλᾶκα. 

-λέγω (λεγ-) gather, «λέξω, -ἔλεξα, -εἴλοχα (291 Ὁ), -εἴλεγμαι, rarely -λέλεγμαι, 
-ἐλέγην, -ἐλέχθην. Attic in compounds only. 

λέγω (Aey-) speak, λέξω, ἔλεξα (εἴρηκα : see φημι), λέλεγμαι (but δι-είλεγμαι, 
291 Ὁ), ἐλέχθην. 

λείπω (λιπ-; λειπ-» λοιπ-) leave, λείψω, ἔλιπον (348), λέλοιπα, λέλειμμαι, ἐλείφθην. 


VERB-LIST 307 


λήθω : see λανθάνω. 

λούω (Aov-) wash, reg. Also λόω (λο-), contracting in the present system, 
as ov, ἐλοῦμεν, λοῦσθαι, λούμενος. 

λύω (Av:v-) loose, λύσω, ἔλυσα, λέλνκα, λέλυμαι, ἐλύθην. 


Μαίνω (pav-, cl.) madden, ἔμηνα, μέμηνα am mad (456 b); μαίνομαι am 
mad, ἐμάνην. 

μανθάνω (pa8-, nas. cl.) learn, μαθήσομαι, ἔμαθον, μεμάθηκα. 

μάρπτω (uapr-, τ Cl.) seize, udp yw, ἔμαρψα. 

μαρτύρομαι (μαρτυρ-» ι 6]. ; see 423), call to witness, ἐμαρτυράμην. 

μάσσω (μαγ-» υ cl.) knead, μάξω, ἔμαξα, μέμαχα, μέμαγμαι, ἐμάχθην. 

μάχομαι (μαχ-» μαχε:η-) fight, μαχοῦμαι (322 c), ἐμαχεσάμην, μεμάχημαι. 

μείγνῦμι (μιγ-» pery-, nas. cl.) mia, μείξω, ἔμειξα, μέμευγμαι, ἐμείχ θην, ἐμίγην. 

μέλλω (μελλ-» μελλη-, 266) crtend, μελλήσω, ἐμέλλησα. 

μέλω (μελ-» μελη-) care for, μελήσω, ἐμέλησα, μεμέληκα, μεμέλημαι, ἐμελήθην. 
Impers. μέλει, etc. ; otherwise, in Attic prose, only in dep. compounds, 
ἐπιμέλομαι or ἐπιμελέομαι, ἐπιμελήσομαι, etc., and μεταμέλομαι. 

μέμφομαι (μεμφ-) blame, μέμψομαι, ἐμεμψάμην. 

μένω (μεν-» μενη-) TEMAIN, μενῶ, ἔμεινα, μεμένηκα. 

μήδομαι (μηδ-) devise, μήσομαι, ἐμησάμην. 

μίγνῦμι, late spelling for μείγνῦμι. 

μιμνήσκω and μιμνήσκω (uva:n-, incep. cl.) remind, μνήσω, ἔμνησα, μέμνημαι 
(456 b; subjv. μεμνώμεθα, opt. μεμνῇο, μεμνῇτο, μεμνήμεθα, also μεμνῷο, 
μεμνῷτο, μεμνῴμεθα, are found), ἐμνήσθην. In prose ἀναμιμνήσκω and 
trop. 

μίμνω = μένω. 

μίσγω = μείγνῦμι. 

(μολ-) come, fut. μολοῦμαι, aor. ἔμολον. 


Νέμω (νεμ-» νεμη-) distribute, νεμῶ, ἔνειμα, νενέμηκα, νενέμημαι, ἐνεμήθην. 

véw (vu-, νευ-, 257 b) swim, νευσοῦμαι (326), ἔνευσα, νένευκα. 

νίζω (wy-, viB-, « cl.) wash, νίψω, ἔνιψα, νένιμμαι. 

νομίζω (νομιδ-, cl.) think, believe, νομιῶ (346 a), ἐνόμισα, νενόμικα, νενόμισ- 
μαι, ἐνομίσθην. 


ἘΞηραίνω (ξηραν- κι cl.) dry, ξηρανῶ, ἐξήρᾶνα, ἐξήρασμαι, ἐξηράνθην. 


"Οἴω (ὀδ-, ὀζη-» κι cl.) smell, ὀζήσω, ὦζησα. 

οἴγνῦμι (οἶγ-, nas. 6].)}, also ofyw open; mostly in compounds; see ἀνοίγνῦμι. 
οἶδα, 386. 

olSéw (οἰδε:η-), also οἰδάνω, swell, ᾧδησα, ᾧδηκα, 

οἰκτίρω (οἰκτιρ-» cl.) pily, ᾧκττρα (late οἰκτείρω, prepa). 


908 GREEK GRAMMAR 


olopat, οἶμαι (oi-, oin-) think (impf. commonly ᾧμην), othropar, φήθην. 

οἴσω : see φέρω. 

οἴχομαι (oix-, οἰχη-) am gone, οἰχήσομαι, ᾧχηκα. 

ὀκέλλω (ὀκελ-» υ cl.).bring to shore, ὥκειλα, prose form of κέλλω. 

ὀλισθάνω and ὀλισθαίνω (ὀλισθ-, nas. cl.) slip, ὥλισθον. 

ὄλλῦμι, for ὀλνῦμι (6A-, ὀλε-, nas. cl.) lose, destroy, 6A® (cp. 322 0), ὥλεσα, 
ὠλόμην was lost, ruined, ὀλώλεκα, ὄλωλα (291 c) am lost, ruined. In prose 
ἀπ-όλλύμι, etc. 

ὄμνυμι (dp-, dpo-, nas. cl.) swear, ὀμοῦμαι, ὥμοσα, ὀμώμοκα (291 c), ὀμώμοσ- 
μαι, ὠμόθην and ὠμόσθην. 

ὀμόργνῦμι (ὄμοργ-, nas. Cl.) wipe, ὀμόρξομαι, ὥμορξα. Only compounds in 
prose. 

ὀνίνημι (dva:n-, redupl. in pres., 365) benefit, ὀνήσω, ὦὥνησα, ὠνήμην (369 a), 
ὠνήθην. 

ὀξύνω (ὀξυν-, « cl.) sharpen, -ὀξυνῶ, ὥξῦνα, -ὥξυμμαι, ὠξύνθην. Only compounds 
in prose. 

ὄπωπα, ὄψομαι : 566 ὁράω. 

dpdw (δρα;:-, ὀπ-ν i-, 267 a) see, ὄψομαι, εἶδον (350, 7), ἑόρᾶκα, ἑώρᾶκα (291 a), 
ὄπωπα (291 ο), ἑώρᾶμαι and oppor, ὥφθην. 

ὀρέγω (ὀρεγ-) reach, ὀρέξω, ὥρεξα. 

ὄρνῦμι (dp-, nas. cl.) γ"αἴϑ6, rouse, mid. rise, rush, ὄρσω, ὦρσα, ὄρωρα (291 c) am 
aroused (456 b). 

ὀρύσσω (dpvy-, t cl.) dig, ὀρύξω, puta, ὀρώρυχα (291 c), ὀρώρυγμαι, ὠρύχθην. 

ὀσφραίνομαι (ὀσφραν-, ὀσφρ-, ὀσφρη-) smell, ὀσφρήσομαι, ὠσφρόμην, ὠσφράν- 
θην. 

ὀφείλω (ὀφελ-, ὀφειλη-) Owe, ὀφειλήσω, ὦφελον, ὠφείλησα, ὠφείληκα, ὠφει- 
λήθην. 

ὀφλισκάνω (ὀφλισκ-, ὀφλ-, ὀφλη-, nas. cl.) lose a suit, am convicted of, or 
condemned lo, ὀφλήσω, ὦφλον, ὥφληκα, ὥφλημαι. 


Παίω (παι-, παιη-) strike, παίσω and παιήσω, ἔπαισα, πέπαικα, ἐπαίσϑθην. 

πάλλω (παλ-, ι Cl.) shake, ἔπηλα, πέπαλμαι. 

(πᾶ-) Acquire, πάσομαι, ἐπᾶσάμην, πέπᾶμαι. 

πάσσω (trat-, cl.) sprinkle, πάσω, ἔπασα, ἐπάσθην. 

πάσχω (παθ-, πενθ-, πονθ-, incep. cl., 260 b) suffer, πείσομαι (for πενθ-σομαι, 
63), ἔπαθον, πέπονθα. 

πείθω (πιθ-, πειθ-, ποιθ-) persuade, πείσω, ἔπεισα, ἐπιθόμην, πέπεικα, πέποιθα 
believe, trust (456 b), πέπεισμαι, ἐπείσθην. 

πεινάω (trewa-) hunger, 320. 

πείσομαι : SCC πάσχω. 

πελάζω (πελαδ-, πελα-, πλᾶ-, ι Cl.), alSO πελάθω, πλᾶθω approach, πελῶ (like 
ἐλῷ, 822 0), ἐπέλασα, ἐπελάσθην and ἐπλᾶθην. 


VERB-LIST 309 


πέμπω (πεμπ-, πομπ-) escort, send, πέμψω, ἔπεμψα, πέπομφα, πέπεμμαι (344 a), 
ἐπέμφθην. 

περαίνω (περαν-» νυ cl.) go through, finish, περανῶ, ἐπέρᾶνα, πεπέρασμαι, ἔπε- 
ράνθην. 

πέρθω (περθ-) sack, πέρσω, ἔπερσα. (The prose word is πορθέω.) 

πέσσω (πεκ-, πεπ΄-» νυ 0].) cook, πέψω, ἔπεψα, πέπεμμαι, ἐπέφθην. 

πετάννῦμι (TeTA-, πτα-, Nas. Cl.) spread, πετῶ (like €AG, 322 0), ἐπέτασα, πέπ- 
ταμαι, ἐπετάσθην. 

πέτομαι (πετ-, πτ-, πταη-» πετη-) fly, πτήσομαι and πετήσομαι, ἐπτόμην and 
ἔπτην (369 a). 

πεύθομαι = πυνθάνομαι. 

πήγνῦμι (πηγ-» παγ-; nas, cl.) fix, πήξω, ἔπηξα, πέπηγα (456 b), ἐπάγην. 

πίμπλημι (πλα:η-», pres. reduplication with inserted μὴ) fill, πλήσω, ἔπλησα, 
πέπληκα, πέπλημαι and πέπλησμαι, ἐπλήσθην. In prose only in compo- 
sition : ἐμπί(μ)πλημι, ete. 

πίμπρημι (πρα:η-, with inserted p as in πίμπλημι) burn, πρήσω, ἔπρησα, 
πέπρημαι, ἐπρήσϑην. In prose ἐμπί(μ)πρημι, etc. 

mive (mit-, mo:w-, nas. cl.) drink, πίομαι and πέομαι (without fut. suffix), 
ἔπιον, πέπωκα, πέπομαι, ἐπόθην. 

πιπρᾶσκω (rpa-, incep. cl.) sell, πέπρᾶκα, πέπρᾶμαι, ἐπράθην. πωλέω is the 
common pres. 

πίπτω (πετ-; weo-, TTw-, 257 a) fall, πεσοῦμαι (326), ἔπεσον, πέπτωκα. 

πίτνω = πίπτω. 

πλάσσω (πλατ-, υ cl.) form, ἔπλασα, πέπλασμαι, ἐπλάσθην. 

πλέκω (πλεκ-, πλακ-) plait, twist, ἔπλεξα, πέπλεγμαι, ἐπλάκην, ἐπλέχθην. 

πλέω (πλυ-, πλευ-, 257 b) sacl, πλεύσομαν and πλευσοῦμαι (like πεσοῦμαι, 326), 
ἔπλευσα, πέπλευκα, πέπλευσμαι. 

πλήσσω (πληγ- ι cl.) strike, πλήξω, ἔπληξα, πέπληγα, πέπληγμαι, ἐπλήγην. 

πλύνω (πλυν-, wAv-, ιυἼ01.) wash, πλυνῶ, ἔπλῦνα, πέπλυμαι, ἐπλύθην. 

πνέω (πνυ-, πνευ-, 257 b) breathe, blow, πνεύσομαι and πνευσοῦμαι (like πεσοῦ- 
μαι, 82θ), ἔπνευσα, πέπνευκα. 

πνΐγω (πντγ-, πνιγ-) choke, πνίξω, ἔπντξα, πέπνιγμαι, ἐπνίγην. 

(πορ-. mpw-) give, allot, ἔπορον, πέπρωται it ἐδ fated. 

πράσσω (mpay-,u cl.) do, πράξω, ἔπραξα, mémpaya and πέπρᾶχα, πέπραᾶγμαι, 
ἐπρἄχθην. 

πρίασθαι, ἐπριάμην : see ὠνέομαι. 

πρίω (πρτ-) saw, ἔπρτσα, πέπρτσμαι, ἐπρίσθην. 

πτάρνυμαι (πταρ-» nas. cl.) sneeze, ἔπταρον. 

πτήσσω (πτηκ- κι cl.) crouch, cower, ἔπτηξα, ἔπτηχα. 

πτύσσω (πτυχ- tcl.) fold, πτύξω, ἔπτυξα, ἔπτυγμαι, ἐπτύχθην. 

πτύω (πτυ:ὕ-) 8ριΐ, ἔπτυσα. 

πτώσσω = πτήσσω. 


310 GREEK GRAMMAR 


πυνθάνομαι (πυθ-, πευθ-, nas. cl.) inquire, hear, πείσομαι, ἐπυθόμην, πέπυσ- 
μαι, 


“Ῥαίνω (ῥαν-, υ cl.) sprinkle, ῥανῶ, ἔρρᾶνα, ἐρράνθην. 

ῥάπτω (ῥαφ- τ Cl.) sew, stitch, paw, ἔρραψα, ἔρραμμαι, ἐρράφην. 

ῥέζω : see ἔρδω. 

ῥέω (pu-, pev-, puy-, 257 Ὁ) flow, ῥεύσομαι and ῥνήσομαι, ἐρρύηκα, ἐρρύην. 

ῥήγνῦμι (ῥηγ-» Pwy-, pay-, nas. cl.) break, ῥήξω, ἔρρηξα, ἔρρωγα, ἐρράγην. 

ῥΐπτω (ῥτῷ-» ῥιφ-», τ΄ cl.), also ῥτπτέω (ῥῖπτε-) throw, ῥίψω, ἔρριψα, ἔρρτφα, 
ἔρρτμμαι, ἐρρύφθην and ἐρρίφην. 

ῥύομαι (δῦ-) preserve, ῥύσομαι, ἐρρυσάμην. 

ῥώννῦμι late (pw-, nas. cl.) strengthen, -ἔρρωσα, ἔρρωμαι, ἐρρώσθην. 


Σαίνω (cav-,u cl.) fawn upon, ἔσηνα. 

calpw (cap-, onp-, cl.) sweep, ἔσηρα, σέσηρα grin. 

σαλπίζω (σαλπιγγ-» tcl.) blow trumpet, ἐσάλπιγξα, 

σάττω (cay-, cl.) pack, σέσαγμαι. 

σβέννυμι (σβε:η-» nas. cl.) quench, σβέσω, -σβήσομαι, ἔσβεσα, ἔσβην (369 bd), 
-«ἔσβηκα (456 0), ἐσβέσθην. 

σείω (σει-) shake, σείσω, ἔσεισα, σέσεικα, σέσεισμαι, ἐσείσθην. 

σημαίνω (onpav-, υ 6].) show, σημανῶ, ἐσήμηνα, σεσήμασμαι, ἐσημάνθην. 

σήπω (σηπ-, σαπ-) make rot, σήψω, σέσηπα (466 b), ἐσάπην. 

σκάπτω (σκαφ-, τ Cl.) dig, σκάψω, ἔσκαψα, ἔσκαφα, ἔσκαμμαι, ἐσκάφην. 

σκεδάννῦμι (oKeda-, nas. cl.) scatter, σκεδῶ (like ἐλῶ, 322 c), ἐσκέδασα, ἐσκέ- 
ϑασμαι, ἐσκεδάσθην. Also pres. σκίδνημι. 

σκέπτομαι (σκετπ-» T cl.) view, more often σκοπέω in pres. syst., σκέψομαι, 
ἐσκεψάμην, ἔσικεμμαι. 

σκήπτω (σκηπ- T Cl.) prop, σκήψω, ἔσκηψα, ἔσκημμαι, ἐσκήφθην. 

σκοπέω, in pres. syst. for σκέπτομαι. 

σκώπτω (TKwT-, τ Cl.) Jeer, TKd Popa, ἔσκωψα, ἐσκώφθην. 

σπάω (ora-) draw, σπάσω, ἔσπασα, ἔσπακα, ἔσπασμαι, ἐσπάσθην. 

σπείρω (σπερ-, σπαρ- υ cl.) sow, σπερῶ, ἔσπειρα, ἔσπαρμαι, ἐσπάρην. 

σπένδω (σπενδ-)} pour a libation, σπείσω (53), ἔσπεισα (53), ἔσπεισμαι. 

σπεύδω (σπευδ-) hasten, σπεύσω, ἔσπευσα. 

στάζω (σταγ-, cl.) drop, ἔσταξα. 

στείβω (στειβ-, στιβη-) tread, ἔστειψα, ἐστίβημαι. 

στέλλω (στελ-, oradr-, κι cl.) equip, send, στελῶ, ἔστειλα (331), ἔσταλκα, 
ἔσταλμαι, ἐστάλην. 

στενάζω (orevay-, ι cl.) groan, στενάξω, ἐστέναξα. 

στέργω (στεργ-, στοργ-) love, στέρξω, ἔστερξα, ἔστοργα. 

στερέω (στερε-), στερίσκω (orep-, incep. cl.) deprive, στερήσω, etc. στέρομαι 
(στερ-) am in want. 


VERB-LIST 911 


στίζω (στιγ-» cl.) prick, στίξω, ἔστιγμαι. 

στόρνῦμι (στορ-» nas. cl.) spread, στορῶ (like reAd, 322 0), ἐστόρεσα. 

στρέφω (στρεφ-, στροφ-, στραφ-) turn, στρέψω, ἔστρεψα, ἔστροφα, ἔστραμμαι, 
ἐστράφην. 

στρώννῦμι (στρω-, nas. cl.) spread, στρώσω, ἔστρωσα, ἔστρωμαι, ἐστρώθην. 

σφάζω and σφάττω (σφαγ-, ι cl.) slay, σφάξω, ἔσφαξα, ἔσφαγμαι, ἐσφάγην. 

σφάλλω (σφαλ-, υ ο].) trip, σφαλῶ, ἔσφηλα, ἔσφαλμαι, ἐσφάλην. 

σῴζω (for σωΐζω, σωιδ-, σω-» 4 cl.) save, σώσω, ἔσωσα, σέσωκα, σέσωμαι and 
σέσωσμαι, ἐσώθην. 


Ταράσσω (rapax-, tcl.) disturb, ταράξω, ἐτάραξα, τετάραγμαι, ἐταράχθην. 

τάσσω (ray-, cl.) arrange, τάξω, ἔταξα, τέταχα, τέταγμαι, ἐτάχθην. 

ταφῆναι, ἐτάφην : see θάπτω. 

τείνω (Tev-, Ta-, tcl.) stretch, Teva, ἔτεινα, τέτακα, τέταμαι, ἐτάθην. 

τεκεῖν, ἔτεκον : 566 τίκτω. 

τεκμαίρω ΥΆ76, τεκμαίρομαι (rekpap-, υ cl.) fix by a mark, infer, τεκμαροῦμαι, 
ἐτεκμηράμην. 

τελέω (τελε-) finish, τελῶ (322 ο), ἐτέλεσα, τετέλεκα, τετέλεσμαι (822, a, b), ἐτε- 
λέσϑην. 

τέλλω (τελ-, « Cl.) cause to rise, rise, ἔτειλα, -τέταλμαι. More frequent in 
composition : ἀνατέλλω, ἐντέλλομαι. 

τέμνω (τεμ-» ταμ-» τμη-») Nas. Cl.) cul, τεμῶ, ἔτεμον and ἔταμον, τέτμηκα, τέτμη- 
μαι, ἐτμήθην. 

τέρπω (τερπ-) delight, τέρψω, ἔτερψα, ἐτέρφθην. 

τεύχω (τυχ-, τευχ-) Make, τεύξω, ἔτευξα, τέτυγμαι. 

τήκω (τακ-, τηκ-) melt, THEW, ἔτηξα, τέτηκα (456 b), ἐτάκην. 

τίθημι : see 375, 372. 

τίκτω (τεκ-, ToK-, 257 a) bear, τέξομαι, ἔτεκον, τέτοκα. 

τίνω (τι:ἴ-, τει-) pay, τείσω, ἔτεισα, τέτεικα, τέτεισμαι, ἐτείσθην. Later, and 
often in our editions, τίσω, ἔττσα, etc. 

τιτρώσκω (tTpw-, incep. cl.) wound, τρώσω, ἔτρωσα, τέτρωμαι, ἐτρώθην. 

(τλα:η-) endure, τλήσομαι, ἔτλην (869 a), τέτληκα. 

τρέπω (τρεπ-, τροπ-, τραπ-) turn, τρέψω, ἔτρεψα, τέτροφα, τέτραμμαι, ἐτρά- 
ary, ἐτρέφθην. 

τρέφω (τρεφ- for θρεφ-, 47 ἃ, τροφ-, τραφ-) nourish, θρέψω, ἔθρεψα, τέτροφα, 
τέθραμμαι, ἐτράφην. 

τρέχω (τρεχ- for θρεχ-, 47 ἃ, δραμ-, δραμη-) run, δραμοῦμαι, ἔδραμον, δεδρά- 
pyka, δεδράμημαι, Also rarely -θρέξομαι, ἔθρεξα. 

τρέω (τρε-) tremble, ἔτρεσα, 

τρίβω (τρτβ-, τριβ-) rub, τρίψω, ἔτριψα, τέτριφα, τέτρτμμαι, ἐτρίφθην, ἐτρίβην. 

τρώγω (Tpwy-, τραγ-) Graw, τρώξομαι, ἔτραγον, τέτρωγμαι. 

τυγχάνω (τυχ-, τευχ-, τυχη-» Nas. Cl.) happen, τεύξομαι, ἔτυχον, τετύχηκα, 


312 GREEK GRAMMAR 


τύπτω (τυπ-, τυπτη-» T Cl.) strike, τυπτήσω, ἐτύπην. 
Tipe (τῖφ-, TUp-, for θυφ-, 47 ἃ) smoke, τέθυύμμαι, ἐτύφην. 


“Ὑπισχνέομαι (ὑπο + ἰσχ-» σχ-» σχη-» Nas. cl.) promise, ὑποσχήσομαι, ὑπε- 
σχόμην, ὑπέσχημαι. Cp. ἔχω. 

᾿ ὑφαίνω (ὕφαν-, cl.) weave, ὑφανῶ, ὕφηνα, ἕφασμαι, ὑφάνθην. 

ὕω (v-) rain, tow, ὕσα, ὕσμαι, ὕσθην. 


Φαγεῖν, ἔφαγον ; 566 ἐσθίω. 

φαίνω (pav-, φην-, tcl.) show, φανῶ, ἔφηνα, πέφαγκα, πέφηνα (332), πέφασμαι 
(339), ἐφάνην, ἐφάνθην (337). ‘ 

φάργνυμι = φράγνῦμι. 

φείδομαι (φειδ-) spare, φείσομαι, ἐφεισάμην. ᾿ 

φέρω (φερ-, οἰ-, ἐνεγκ-» évex-, ἐνοκ-) Lear, οἴσω, ἤνεγκον and ἤνεγκα, ἐνήνοχα 
(291 c), ἐνήνεγμαι, ἠνέχθην. 

φεύγω (φυγ-, φευγ-) flee, φεύξομαι and φευξοῦμαν (326), ἔφυγον, πέφευγα. 

φημι (φα:η-, 382) say, φήσω, ἔφησα. Also (ἐρ-, ῥε:η-) ἐρῶ, εἴρηκα (291 5), 
εἴρημαι, ἐρρήθην. See also εἶπον. 


φθάνω (φθα;:η-, nas. cl.), antecipate, φθήσομαν and φθάσω, ἔφθασα, ἔφθην. 


(369 a). 

φθείρω (φθερ-, φθαρ-, φθορ-) corrupt, φθερῶ, ἔφθειρα, ἔφθαρκα, ἔφθορα, ἔφθαρ- 
μαι, ἐφθάρην. 

φθίνω (φθι-, φθιν-) waste, perish, φθίσω, ἔφθισα, ἔφθιμαι. 

φράγνῦμι (ppay-, nas. cl.), also φράσσω (ι cl.) enclose, ἔφραξα, πέφραγμαι, 
ἐφράχθην. 

φράζω (φραδ-, ι cl.) fell, φράσω, ἔφρασα, πέφρακα, πέφρασμαι, ἐφράσθην. 

φρίσσω (pptk-, v cl.) bristle, shudder, ἔφρτξα, πέφρτκα. 

φρύγω (ppvy-) roast, φρύξω, ἔφρῦξα, wéppvypar. 

φυγγάνω (φυγ-, nas. cl.) = φεύγω. 

φυλάσσω (pvdak-, κι cl.) guard, φυλάξω, ἐφύλαξα, πεφύλαχα, πεφύλαγμαι, 
ἐφυλάχθην. 

φύρω (φυρ-, φῦρ-) mix, πέφυρμαι. 

φύω (φυ:Ὁ-) produce, φύσω, ἔφυσα, ἔφυν (369 d), πέφυκα (456 b). 


Xalpw (χαρ-, Xapery-, χαιρη-» νυ cl.) rejoice, χαιρήσω, κεχάρηκα, κεχάρημαι, 
ἐχάρην. 

χαλάω (χαλα-)} loosen, ἐχάλασα, ἐχαλάσθην. 

χάσκω (χα-, Xav-, χην-» incep. cl.) gape, χανοῦμαι, ἔχανον, κέχηνα, 

χέω (χυ-, Xev-, 257 b) pour, χέω (without fut. suffix), ἔχεα, κέχυκα, κέχυμαι, 
ἐχύθην. 

χόω (χο:ω-) heap, χώσω, ἔχωσα, κέχωκα, κέχωσμαι, ἐχώσθην. 

χράομαι (χρα:η-; 320) wse, χρήσομαι (317 a), ἐχρησάμην, κέχρημαι, ἐχρήσθην, 


VERB-LIST 313 


Xpaw (xpa:y-, 320) give an oracle, χρήσω, ἔχρησα, ἐχρήσθην. 

χρή, 390. ἀπόχρη τέ suffices, inf. ἀποχρῆν, impf. ἀπέχρη. 

Xptw (χρτ-) anoint, sting, xptow, ἔχρῖσα, κέχρτμαι and κέχρτσμαι, ἐχρίσθην. 

χρῴζω, χροΐζω (χρῳδ-; xpoid-, ν᾿ cl.), χρώννῦμι (Xpw-, nas. cl.) color, κέχρωσμαι, 
ἐχρώσθην. ' 

Ψεύδω (ψευδ-) deceive, ψεύσω, ἔψευσα, ἔψευσμαι, ἐψεύσθην. 

ψύχω (ψυχ-, Pox-) cool, ψύξω, ἔψυξα, ἔψύγμαι, ἐψύχθην and ἐψύχην. 


New (ὠθ-, ὧθε-, 267) push, dow, ἔωσα, ἔωσμαι (291 a), ἐώσθην. 
ὠνέομαι (ὠνε:η-, πρια-, 267) buy, ὠνήσομαι, ἐπριάμην (369 a), ἐώνημαι (291 a), 
ἐωνήθην. 


GREEK INDEX 


Nore.—The Indexes are intended to supplement the Table of Con- 


tents and the Verb-List; for verb forms look first in the latter. 


Refer- 


ences are to sections; but a few references in the English Index are to 


pp. 1-3 of the Introduction. 


A, quantity 4; initial a in cra-| αἰσθάνομαι, w. gen. 511 a; w. 


sis 836 b; interchanges with 
eo 25; aor. in 351; a- neg. 
444; ἀ- copulative 444 a. 

a, retained in poetry 69 a,b; 
after «4p 77 a, 317; inter- 
changes with ἡ, ὦ 26. 

-a, suffix 404. 

ἀγαθός, compared 182, 1. 

ἀγνώς 145. 

ἄγω, meaning of mid. 500 b. 

ἀγών 99. 

ἄγων 583 ἃ. 

-ἄάδης, -as, suffix 433. 

-alw, fut. of verbs in 346 Ὁ. 

"AOava, ᾿Αθηνᾷ 85, 86. 

᾿Αθήναζε, ᾿Αθήνηθεν, 
228. 

αι, diphthong 5 and a; final, 
effect on accent 14. 

au, a, diphthong 5 and b. 

ai, pronoun 18 a. 

αἰδώς 129. 

αἴξ 109. 

aipéw, meaning of mid. 500 b. 


᾿Αθήνησι 


acc. and gen. 530 c; three 
constructions 588 b. 

αἰσχρός, compared 181. 

αἰσχύνομαι, w. acc. 530 a. 

αἴτιος, W. gen. 516 a. 

-άκις, ady. ending 232. 

ἀκούω, W. gen. 511 a; w. acc. 
and gen. 530 c; three con- 
structions 588 b. 

ἀκροάομαι 317 a. 

ἄκων 167; as partic. 589 a. 

ἀλλάσσω 341, 345. 

ἀλλήλων 202. 

ἄλλοθεν, ἄλλοθι 228. 

ἄλλος 201. 

ἄλλοσε 228. 

ἅλς 40 a; declined 99, 100. 

ἅμα, W. partic. 592. 

ἀμελῶ, W. gen. 511 c. 

apos (apds) 204. 

ἀμφί, W. acc., gen., and dat. 
598. 

ἀμφίοιεν, ἀμφίοιτε 377. 

ἀμφότερος, W. art. 554. 

315 


910 


ἀμφοτέρωθεν, w. gen. 518 b. 

ἄμφω, W. art. 554, 

ἀμύνομαι, W. acc. O30 a. 

a(v)-, neg. 441, 444, 447 a. 

-ἂν, for av 69 b. 

av, W. impf. indic. 461, 468; w. 
plup. indic. 469; w. aor. in- 
dic. 467, 468; w. opt. 479, 
480; w. infin. 579; w. partic. 
5953 w. ὅτε, ὅποτε 6275 w. 
ἐπεί, ἐπειδή 6293 general uses 
666 and a. 

ἀνά, W. acc. 598. 

avaé 111 ο. 

ἀνάξιος, W. gen. 516 a. 

ἀναφορά 600 b. 

ἅνδρες 36 b. 

ἄνευ, W. gen. 518 ο, 599. 

ἀνήρ, declined 106, 107; ἁνήρ, 
86 Ὁ. 

ἄνθρωπος 62. 

-avo, suffix 412. 

-avo:e-, Suffix 261 b, c. 

ἀντέχομαι, W. gen. 510 b. 

ἀντί, W. gen. 598. ᾿ 

ἀνύσας 583 a. 

ἄξιος, compared 177; w. gen. 
516 a. 

ἄπαις 145. 

ἅπαξ 232. 

ἁπλόος, ἁπλοῦς, declined 87-90 ; 
compared 179 a. 

ἀπό, W. gen. 598. 

ἀποθνήσκω, as pass. 499. 

᾿Απόλλων 104. 

ἅπτομαι, W. gen. 510 b. 


GREEK GRAMMAR 


ἅπτω, meaning of mid. 500 a. 

dpa, inferential particle 673 a. 

dpa, interrog. 668; dpa μή 
488 a. 

"Apay 112. 

"Apns 128 c. 

-άριο-ν, dim. suffix 431 ¢. 

apx-, apxe-, apxi-, prefix 442 a. 

ἀρχόμενος 583 a. 

ἄρχω 341; meaning of mid. 
500 b. 

ἅρπαξ 145. 

-ds, hames in 72 6. 

-ds, in nouns of number 192. 

ἄστυ 130. 

ἀσύνδετον 600 a. 

-ata., for -νται, 344 c. 

ἅτε, W. partic. 593 ἃ. 

ἅτερος 36 ο. 

-ato, for -ντὸ 270 a, 944 ο. 

atta 217% a. 

av, diphthong 5 and a. 

αὐτίκα, W. partic. 592. 

αὐτόθεν 228 a. 

αὐτός 197, 198; meaning 199; 
w. ordinal 558 a. 

αὗτός 36 Ὁ. 

αὐτόσε 228 ἃ. 

αὐτοῦ, ady. 228 a, 515. 

αὑτοῦ, for ἑαυτοῦ 203 a. 

ἀφειδής, W. gen. 516 a. 

ἀφειδῶ, W. gen. d11 ο. 

adiornp 363 a. 

ἄχαρις 147. 

ἄχρι 33 Ὁ; w. gen. 518 ο, 599; 
ἄχρι Clauses 631. 


GREEK INDEX 


-aw, verbs in, contracting to ἡ 
instead of a 320. 


B 38 a, b, and c, 39, 44 a; after 
μ9 49. 

BeBaor, βεβῶσι, βεβώς, root perf. 
370 (2). 

βέβηκα 456 b. 

βελτίων, declined 149, 150; 
compared 182, 1. 

Bios 62. 

βουλεύω, 
500 b. 

βούλομαι, augment 266. 

βοῦς 136. 


meaning of mid. 


P38 a, b, ὃ, and d, 39, 44 Ὁ; 
nasal 3. 

γᾶ, γαῖα 86. 

yap 672. 

γαστήρ 108 a. 

ye 19 e, 671 b. 

γεγώς, root perf. 370 (3). 

γελάω 322. 

γέλως 112. 

γένος 124. 

γεραιός, compared 178. 

γῇ 85. 

γίγας 121, 122 a. 

γίγνομαι 257 a. 

γιγνώσκω 289 d; redupl. 260 Ὁ. 

γλυκύς 177. 

γόνυ 120. 

γοῦν 671 b. 

γράφω 341, 345. 

γυμνάζω 341. 


317 


γυμνής 145. 
γυνή 142, 1. 


A 38 a, Ὁ, and c, 89,44 6: after 
ν 49. 

-δα, -1da, -d, -ἰδ, patronym. suf- 
fix 433. 

δαίμων 102. 

δάκρυον, δάκρυ 143, 1. 

δέ, conj. 669. 

-de 19 6. 

δέδιμεν, root perf. 370 (δ). 

δέδοικα, δέδια, aS pres. 456 c. 

δείκνυμι 360. 

δεικνύς 170 a. 

δεῖνα 225. 

δελφίς 103 b. 

δεύτερος 188. 

δέω 321 a. 

δή 671 c, 673 a. 

δηλόων, δηλῶν 168 b. 

Δημήτηρ 108 b. 

δημοσίᾳ 526 Ὁ. 

-δην, adv. ending 291]. 

δήπου 671 ἃ. 

δῆτα 671 ἃ. | 

διά, W. acc. and gen. 598. 

διάγω 589d ἃ. 

διάκειμαι, as pass. 499. 

διαχειρίζω 448 ἃ. 

διδάσκω, redupl. 260 b; mean- 
ing of mid. 500 a. 

δίγαμμα ἌΡ 

δίκαιος, declined 76; compared 
yee 

Διογένης 154. 


918 


διότι Clauses 626. 

δίπηχυς 159 Ὁ. 

διπλοῦς, declined 90. 

δίς 232. 

δίφθογγοι ὅ. 

δίχα, διχῇ. adv. of number 299. 
δμώς 101 ἃ. 

-dov, adv. ending 291. 

δορός 143, 2. 

δόρυ 120. 

dovAdw 315. 

δύναμαι 266, 365 and a, 395. 
δύο 187 a, 188. 

dvo-, prefix 441, 444. 

δῶρον 62. 


KE, quantity 4; pronun. 7; be- 
comes εἰ 51; formative vowel 
263 a; changes to o 403. 

ἐ- augment 265 a. 

ἑ, enclitic 19 a. 

ἐᾶν τε. . . ἐάν Te 653. 

ἑαυτοῦ 203. 

ἐγγύς, W. gen. 599. 

ἐγκαλῶ, W. dat. 520 a. 

ἐγκρατής, W. gen. 516 a. 

ἔγνων 367. 

ἐγώ 194. 

ἔγωγε, ἔμοιγε 195 ο. 

ἔδει 460. 

ἔδυν 367. 

ἕθεν 196. 

ει, diphthong 5; and digraph 
27 a. 

ei, proclitic 17 ὁ; εἰ clauses 
477, 645-656. 


GREEK GRAMMAR 


ei-, as redupl. 291 b. 

εἶ, name of letter 1 b. 

-εἰ, ady. ending 231. 

ei γάρ, in wishes 470, 477. 

εἰ δὲ μή 656 ο. 

εἰδώς 172. 

εἴθε 21 d; in wishes 470, 477. 

εἰκὸς ἦν 460. 

εἰ μή, εἰ μὴ διά 656 ἃ. 

εἰκέναι, εἰκώς, root perf. 370 (6). 

εἰμι, enclitic 19 d; conjug. 384 ; 
in compound perfs. 456 d. 

εἶμι 385 and ἃ. 

εἴξασι, root perf. 370 (6). 

-co adj. suff. 424 a; place suff. 
432 and a. 

εἰπέ 349 a. 

εἶπον, W. infin. 658. 

cis(es), proclit. 17 Ὁ; w. 800. 
598. 

εἷς declined 187. 

εἴτε. . . εἴτε 653. 

εἴωθα 456 ο. 

ἐκ: see ἐξ. 

ἕκαστος, W. art. 554. 

ἐκεῖ and ἐκεῖθεν 236. 

ἐκεῖνος 208, correl. pron. 227; 
pred. position 553; in pred. 
561 b. 

ἐκείνως 236. 

ἐκεῖσε 236. 

ἐκέλευσε, In indir. disc. 663. 

ἐκπίπτω, AS pass. 499. 

ἐκποδών 448 a. 

ἐκτός, W. gen. 518 Ὁ. 

ἑκών, as partic. 589 a. 


GREEK INDEX 


ἐλεύθερος, W. gen. 516 a. 

"EAevoivdde, Ἐλευσῖνι, ᾿Ελευσῖνό- 
θεν 228. 

ἐλθέ 849 ἃ. 

-ελο, suff. 412. 

ἐλπίς 114. 

ἐλῶ 322 ο. 

ἐμαυτοῦ 209. 

ἐμός 204. 

ἐμποδίζω, ἐμπόδιος, ἐμποδών 448 ἃ. 

ἔμπροσθεν, W. gen. 518 b. 

év, proclit. 17 b; w. dat. 598. 

ἔνδοθεν, ἔνδοθι, ἔνδον 228. 

ἕνεκα, W. gen. 518 ο, 599. 

ἔνθα, ἔνθεν 236, 238; ἔνθα clauses 
620. 

ἐνθάδε 236. 

ἔνθεν, w. gen. 518 b; ἔνθεν 
clauses 620. 

ἐνθένδε 236. 

ἐνθυμέομαι, augment 268 b. 

ἐνίοτε 614 a. 

ἐναντιόομαι, augment 268 Ὁ. 

-evt, adj. suff, 427. 

ἐνταῦθα, ἐνταυθοῖ 236. 

ἐντεῦθεν 290. 

ἐντός, W. gen. 518 b. 

ἐντρέπομαι, W. gen. d11 c. 

e€(éx), proclitic 17 Ὁ; w. gen. 
598. 

-co, adj. suff. 426. 

-eo:e-, fut. suff. 324. 

ἔοιγμεν, root perf. 370 (6). 

ἔοικα, redupl. 291 a; pres. in 
meaning 456 c. 

ἐπεί, ἐπειδή Clauses 629. 


319 


ἐπήκοος, W. gen. 516 a. 

ἐπί 998. 

ἐπιθοίμεθα, ἐπίθωνται 377. 

ἐπιμελής, W. gen. 516 ἃ. 

ἐπιορκέω 268 b. 

ἐπιτιμῶ, W. dat. or acc. 520 a. 

ἐργαζομαι 291. 

ἔργῳ, dat. 526 Ὁ. 

Ἑρμῆς 85. 

-epo, suff. 412. 

ἐρρωμένος, compared 179 Ὁ. 

ἐρῶ, W. gen. 511 c. 

és, proclitic 17 b; 
598. 

-εσ following vowel in adj., 
resulting contraction, 152 b. 

-es, suff. 407, 413 b. 

-ε-σαι, becomes -7 or -εἰ 263 Ὁ. 

-e-co, becomes -ov 263 Ὁ. 

ἑσπέρας, gen. 515. 

ἕσταμεν etc., root perf. 370 (1). 

ἔστε Clauses 631. 

-eo-Tepos, comp. ending 179. 

ἔστην 367. 

ἕστηκα, as pres. 456 b. 

ἔστι 20 6: 384 b; ἐστι, εἰσι, 
omitted 498 b. 

ἔστιν οἵ (ov, 7) 614 ἃ; ἔστιν 
ὅστις, interrog. 614 a. 

ἑστώς 173. 

ἔσχατος 184. 

ἔσω, W. gen. 518 b. 

ἕτερος, in crasis 36 ὁ; correl. 
pron. 227; w. gen. 516 a. 

ἑτέρωθι, ἑτέρωθεν, ἑτέρωσε 228. 


ev, diphthong 5. 


W. acc. 


920 


εὖ 231; prefix 441, 444; w. 
gen. 518 b; w. ποιῶ 530 a. 
-ev, suff. 405, 480 and a, 434 
and a. 

-ev-, verb-stems in 257 b. 

εὐδαίμων 146; declined 147; 
compared 179. 

εὔελπις 146. 

εὐήθης 146; declined 151. 

εὐθύς, W. partic. 592. 

εὐκλεής, compared 177. 

εὔνους, declined 82; compared 
179 a. 

εὖ πάσχω, as pass. 499. 

εὑρέ 349 ἃ. 

-εύς : 566 -εὖ. 

εὖτε Clauses 628. 

εὐωχοῦμαι, W. gen. 510 6. 

ἔφη, ἔφη χρῆναι, in indir. dis. | 
663. 

ἐφ᾽ o or ἐφ᾽ ᾧτε, w. infin. 567. 

ἐχθρός 181. 

ἐχρῆν 390, 460. 

ἔχω 565 b; mean. of mid. 500 a. 

ἔχων 583 a. 

ἑώρων 267 a. 

ews, declined 94. 

ews Clauses 631. 


Z 38 a and e, 39. 
-Ce, place ending 228. 


H, quantity 4. 

ἡ, proclitic 17a; as pron. 18 a. 
7, interrog. 668. 

nt, y, diphthong 5. 


GREEK GRAMMAR 


7, correl. ady. 236; clauses 620. 

noe 41. 

ἦν δ᾽ ἐγώ, ἢ δ᾽ ὅς 383. 

ἡδύς, compared 181, 

ἥκω, as perf, 454 f. 

ἡλίκος 215; correl. pron. 227 ; 
clauses 620. 

ἧμαι 388 a. 

ἡμέρα, declined 66; gen. 515. 

ἡμέτερος 2043 w. αὐτῶν 559. 

ἦμι, ἦν, ἢ 383. 

ἡμι-, insep. prefix 444. 

ἡμίν 190. 

ἥμισυς 159 b. 

nupeyvoovy, double augm. 268 d. 

ἠνειχόμην, double augm. 268 ἃ. 

ἡνίκα, correl. ady. 236; clauses 
630. ) 

ἧπαρ 120. 

-npes, neuter forms in 153 ἃ. 

-npo, suff. 428. 

npws 141. 

-ης 868 -εσ. 

ἥσσων, compared 182, 2. 

ἦστε impf. 384 ο. 

ἥσυχος 74. . 

ἧττον, ἥκιστα, compared 180. 

nv, diphthong 5. 


Θ, pronun. and sound changes 
7%, 38 a, Ὁ, c, 39, 42, 44 αἱ 
added to verb-stem 400 b. 

θάλασσα 70. 

θαρρῶν 583 a. 

θἄτερον 36 ἃ. 

-θε, becomes τε- 47 Ο, 


GREEK 


-Gev, place ending 228. 
θεός, vocative 62 Ὁ. 
-θη:ε, passive suff. 302. 
θῆλυς 159 Ὁ. 


 -6:,abecomes -τὶ 47 b; place 


ending 228. 
θιγγάνω, w. gen. 510 Ὁ. 
θνήσκω, fut. perf. of 364. 
Goiparioy 36 ἃ. 
θρίξ 111 b. 
-θρο, -θρον, suff. 408. 
Gv-, becomes τυ- 47 c. 


τ @&-, verb stem 312. 


θυγάτηρ 106. 
θύραθεν, θύραζε, θύρασι 228. 


I, quantity 4; adscript and 
subscript 5 b; disappearing 
27; final, in crasis 36 a; 
changes produced by 56. 


_ τὰς place ending 228. 


-t, demons. ending 210. 


_ =, -te-, -en-, mode suff. 270, 306, 


319. 
a, suff. 406 and a, 429 and Ὁ. 
-cadns, suff. 433. 
-16, suff. 434 and a. 
ἰδέ 349 a. 
ἰδίᾳ, dat. 526 b. 
-ἰζω, verbs in 346. 


εἴημι 371, 374, 375. 


-uxo, suff. 413 ἃ, 425. 
ἕλεως, declined 92. 
-yso, suff. 413 f, 428. 
ἵνα Clauses 640-642. 
-tvo, -wos, suff. 426. 


21 


INDEX 321 


-co, suff. 424, 431 a, 432 and a. 

-core-, tense suff. 259. 

ἱππεύς, declined 136. 

-ἰσκο, suff. 431 b. 

-ἰσκοϊε-, tense suff. 260. 

ἱστάς, declined 162 Ὁ. 

ἵστημι 362, 363; fut. perf. 364; 
root-aor. 367, 368; meaning 
of mid. 500 a. 

ἴσχω, redupl. 257 a. 

-tow, forms in 346 a. 

-ἰτιδ, ending 432 c. 

ἰχθύς, declined 132. 


-twv, -ἰστος 181. 


K 38 a, b, c, 39, 44 b. 

xa-aorist 378. 

-xa-, tense suff. 288, 378. 

καθέζομαι, augment 268 c. 

καθεύδω, augment 268 c. 

κάθημαι 389. 

καθίζω, augment 268 c. 

καθίστημι 363 a. 

kai, in crasis 36 b; in numerals, 
190; w. partic. 593 Ὁ; adv. 
670 a; καὶ γάρ 672 ἃ ; καὶ τόν 

"and infin. 549 ο. 

καΐπερ, W. partic. 593 Ὁ. 670 c. 

καίτοι 670 Ὁ. 

κακός, compared 181, 182, 2. 

κακῶς, W. ποιῶ 530 a. 

κακῶς πάσχω, as pass. 499. 

καλέω, fut. 322 c. 

xaAXu-, insep. prefix 444. 

καλός, compared 181. 

κἄν (καὶ év) 36 b. 


322 


καταγιγνώσκω, w. gen. δ14 a. 
καταψηφίζομαι, W. gen. ol4 a. 
κατηγορῶ, W. gen. 014 a. 
Kapa 143, ὃ. 

kas (καὶ és) 36 b. 

κατά, W. acc. and gen. 598. 
kei 36 Ὁ. 

κέκτημαι 456 Ὁ. 

κεῖμαι 387. 

κεῖνος 208. 

-κέ-ναι, Inf. suff. 296. 

κέρας, declined 126. 

κερδαίνω B27 a. 

Kéws, acc. of 94. 

-Kn-, -κει-, -Ke-, tense suff. 293, 
κηρυξ 111 a. 

κλαίω 259 e; κλαίων 583 a. 
κλώψ 112. 

-xo, suff. 425, 

-xot-, Sufi. 295. 

κοινῇ, dat. 526 Ὁ. 

κρᾶσις 30. 

κρέας, declined 124. 

κρείσσων 182, 1. 

-«t, dropt 119. 

κτάομαι, perf. redupl. of 289 d. 
κύων 142, 3. 

-korn-, suff. 294. 


«κως, -κυιᾶ-, -κος, -koT-, SUff. 297. 


A 38 a, 39. 

λαβέ 349 a. 

λαβών 583 a. 

AavOavw, W. acc. 
partic. 585 a. 

λέγω, W. infin. 658. 


530 ἃ: w. 


GREEK GRAMMAR 


λέων, declined 121. 
λιμήν 102. 

-Ao, suff. 412. 

λόγῳ, dat. 526 b. 
dv-, verb-stem 312. 
λῴων, λῷστος 182, 1. 


M 38 a, d, 39. 

“wa: SCC -ματ. 

pa, in oaths w. ace. 532. 

-μᾶ, suff. 406. 

μάκαρ 145. 

μᾶλλον, μάλιστα, to form comp. 
and sup. 180. 

Μαραθῶνι, loc. dat. 527 a. 

μάρτυς 142, 4. 

-ματ, suff. 407. 

paxotpat 322 Cc. 

pe, enclit. 19 a. 

μέγας declined 175; compared 
182, 3. 

μείων 182, 4. 

peAas, declined 156, 157 a, b; 
compared 177. 

MeAiry, loc. dat. 527 a. 

μέλλω, augment of 266; w. in- 
fin. 570 b. 

μέμνημαι, as pres. 456 Ὁ. 

μέμφομαι, W. acc. or dat. 520 a, 
530 ο. 

μέν (μήν) 669 a. 

-μενος (-pevn, -pevov), partic. 
end. 300 d. 

μέντοι 669 b. 

-μεσθα, for -μεθα 263 Cc. 

μετά, W. acc. and gen. 598. 


GREEK INDEX 


μεταμέλει, Ww. gen. 511 c. 

μεταξύ, w. gen. 518 b, 599; w. 
partic. 592. 

μέχρι 88 Ὁ; w. gen. 518 ο, 599; 
clauses 631. 

μή 486-489; w. infin. 564, 572; 
becomes μὴ οὐ 572 ἃ; w. 
partic. phrase 582 c; clauses 
610, 611. 

-yn, suff. 406. 

μηδέ 667 ; μηδὲ εἷς, μηδείς, 189. 

μηδέτερος 224. 

μήν, declined 99. 

μήν, particle 671 a. 

μήτηρ, declined 106. 

partis, poet. 224 a. 

pixpos, compared 177. 

μιμνήσκω 289 d. 

μιν 19 ἢ. 

Mivas, ace. of 94. 

μνήμων, W. gen. 516 a. 

-μο, Sufi. 406. 

μοι, enclitic 19 a. 

μοῖρα, declined 66. 

-μον, suff. 413. 

μοναχῇ 233. 

-μος, 868 -μο. 

pov, enclitic 19 ἃ. 

μύριοι (pipior) 193. 

μῶν 488 a. 


N 38 a, d, 39; movable 31, 41; 
changes of 50; before o 51. 

-v, stems in 103 a; neut. end. 
62 ο. 

-vat, inf. in 296, 308. 


323 


ναΐχι 21 d. 

ναῦς, declined 136, 137. 

vd, before o 53. 

veavias, declined 71. 

-veo:e-, pres. suff. 261 e. 

νέος, compared 177. 

νεώς, declined 92. 

vy, in oath w. ace. 532. 

v@, before o 53. 

νίκη, declined 70. 

νικῶ, as perf. 454 f. 

vw 19 f, 196. 

-vo, suff. 412, 428. 

-vo:e-, pres. suff. 261 a. 

voos, declined 80. 

vt, before o 53. 

-vtat, -vto, after consonants 
999 a. 

-νῦμι, Verbs in 358. 

νυν 19 £3; or νῦν 673 a. 

vov 236. 

νύξ 111 c; gen. 515. 


EB 38 a, e, 39. 
ξεῖ, name of letter 1 b. 


O, quantity 4; becomes ov 51. 
6, proclitic 17 a; as pron. 18 a. 
-o, suffix 403, 410. 

6, 7, τό, declined 61; as rel. 
pron. 205 a; syntax 549- 
556. 

ὅδε, ἥδε, τόδε, declined 206, 209 ; 
demons. 227; takes pred. 
position 553; in pred. 561 b. 

ὁδί, οὑτοσί, etc., 210. 


924 


ὁδός, declined 62. 

ὁδούς, declined 121, 122 a. 

-o:e-, formative vowel 257. 

ὅθεν 236; clauses 620. 

ot, diphthong 5; effect on ac- 
cent 14. 

oi, proclitic 17 a; as pron. 
18 a. 

ot, of, reflex. pron, 19 a, 194, 
195 a. 

of, adv. 236; clauses 620. 

οἷδα 386. 

οἴκαδε 228. 

οἴκοι, accent 14 a; ady. 228. 

οἴομαι, W. infin. 658. 

οἷον, οἷα, W. partic. 593 a. 

οἷος 215, 227; clauses 620 a. 

ois 138. 

-οισι, dat. pl. 64. 

οἴχομαι, W. partic. 585 ο. 

ὀλιγάκις 232. 

ὀλίγος, compared 182, 4. 

ὀλιγωρῶ, Ww. gen. d11 ο. 

ὄλωλα 456 Ὁ. 

ὄμνῦμι, W. acc. ὅ90 ἃ. 

ὁμοιοτέλευτον 681 ἃ. 

ὅμως, W. partic. 592. 

ὄναρ 142, 5. 

ὀνειδίζω, W. dat. or acc. 520 a. 

ὄνειρος 142, 5. 

ὀνίνημι, W. gen. 510 e. 

ὅπῃ, ὁπηνίκα, ὁπόθεν, ὅποι 236 5 
clauses 620, 621. 

ὁπηλίκος 222; clauses 620. 

ὄπισθεν, w. gen. 518 b. 

ὁποῖος 222, 227; clauses 620. 


GREEK GRAMMAR 


ὁπόσος, 222,.227; clauses 620, 
621. 

ὁπότε 236; clauses 627. 

ὁπότερος 222, 2273 clauses 620. 

ὅπου 236; clauses 620, 621. 

ὅπως 2363; clauses 638. 

ὁράω, double redupl. 291 a. 

ὀρέγομαι, w. gen. 510 d. 

ὄρνις, declined 114; 149, 4. 

ὀρφανός, w. gen. 516 a. 

see -εσ. 

-os, -ov: see suffix -o. 

ὅς, poss. pron. 204. 

ὁσάκις 282. 

ὅς, ἡ, 6, declined 213, 214; 227; 
as demons. 560; indir. inter- 
rog. 621 a; ὅς clauses 612-- 
OL ae 

ὅσος 215, 227; clauses 620, 621. 

ὀστέον, declined 80. 

ὅστις 218, 220, 227; clauses 612-- 
619; as indir. interrog. 621. 

ὁστισοῦν 221 Cc. 

ὀσφραίνομαι, W. gen. 510 e. 

ὅτε 2363; clauses 627. 

ott 33 b; clauses 588 a, 622- 
625, 659 and b. 

ov, diph. and digraph 5, 27 a. 

ov (οὐκ, οὐχ), enclitic 17 e; neg. 
adv. 486, 487, 667; w. infin. 
564; w. partic. 582 c; in 
questions .668; changed to 
μή 577 Ὁ, 579 a. 

ov, name of letter 1 b. 

ov, ov, reflex. pron. 19 a, 194, 
195 a, 197, 


“OS : 


GREEK INDEX 


ov, adv. 236, 515; οὗ clauses 
620. 
οὐδέ, neg. of δέ 6675; οὐδὲ εἷς, 

᾿ς οὐδείς 189. 

οὐδεὶς ὅστις οὐ 614 b. 

οὐδέτερος 224. 

οὐκ ἔστιν ὅπως 614 a, 098 6. 

οὐκοῦν, interrog. 668. 

οὐ μή 489. 

οὖν 673 a. 

οὕνεκα Clauses 626. 

ovs 101 a, 120. 

οὔτις, poet. 224 a. 

οὗτος, declined 207, 209, 227; 
pred. position 553; in ex- 
clam. 561 a; in pred. 561 b. 

ὀφείλω 259 a. 


II 38, 39, 44 a. 

παῖς, accent 101 a; declined 
116. 

παλαιός, compared 178. 

πᾶν, prefix 441. 

πανταχῇ “90. 

πανταχοῦ, πανταχόθεν, πανταχόσε 
228 a. 

πάντοθεν, πάντοσε 228. 

παρά, W. acc., gen., and dat. 598. 

πᾶς 160-162. 

πάσχω, redupl. 260 b. 

πατήρ, declined 106. 

παύσᾶς, declined 162 b. 

πεῖ, name of letter 1 b. 

Teva, W. gen. 511 c. 

πένης 145. 

πέποιθα, pert. 456 b. 


325 


περ, enclitic 19 6. 

-rep 216. 

πέρα(ν), w. gen. 518 b. 

περί, not elided 33 b; w. acc., 
gen., and dat. 598. 

Περικλῆς, declined 12735 origi- 
nally adj. 154. 

πέφυκα, perf. 456 Ὁ. 

my enclitic 19 c, 236. 

πῇ 236. 

πηλίκος 222, 227. 

πηνίκα 236. 

πῆχυς, declined 130. 

πικρός VE 

πίπτω, redupl. 257 a; perf. 
redupl. 289 d. 

-πλάσιος 192. 

πλεῖστοι, οἵ πλεῖστοι ὅδ0. 

πλεονάκις 232. 

πλέω, W. acc. 530 ἃ. 

πλέως 95. 

πλήν, W. gen. 518 c, 599. 

πλησίον, W. gen. 518 b, 599. 

-πλους 191. 

Πνύξ 142, 6. 

ποθεν, enclitic 19 ο, 236. 

πόθεν 236. 

ποθι, ποι, enclitic 19 ο. 

ποῖ 236. 

ποιητής, declined 71. 

ποῖος 222, 227. 

ποιῶ, meaning of mid. 500 b. 

πόλις, declined 130. 

πολίτης, declined 71. 

πολλά, τὰ πολλά 556. 

πολλάκις 232. 


920 


πολλαχῇ 233. 

πολύ, τὸ πολύ 556. 

πολύς, declined 175 ; compared 
182, 5. 

πονηρός, compared 177. 

πορφύρεος, πορφυροῦς 87, 88. 

πόσος 222, 227. 

more, enclitic 19 c, 236, 240 a 
and b. 3 

πότε 236. 

πότερον. . . » 668. 

πότερος 222, 227. 

που, enclitic 19 c, 236. 

mov 236, 481, 515. 

πούς 117. 

πρᾷος 170. 

πρέσβυς, πρεσβευτής, declined 
142, 7; compared 177. 

πρίν Ww. infin. 568, 648 : πρίν 
clauses 644. 

πρό, W. gen. 598. 

πρόηται, TPOOLWTO, προοῖντο, προ- 
otto 377. 

πρόθεσις 437. 

προῖκα, adv. acc. 539. 

πρός, W. acc. 5213 Ww. acc., gen., 
and dat. 598, 

προσῆκε, impf. 460. 

πρόσθηται 377. 

πρόσθεν, w. gen. 518 Ὁ. 

πρότερον 7, W. infin. 568 a. 

πρότερος, lacks positive 183. 

πρὸ τοῦ 549 ο. 

πρῶτος 180, 184. 

πυνθάνομαι, constructions 588 b. 

πῦρ, declined 142, 8. 


GREEK GRAMMAR 


πω, enclitic 19 c. 

πως, enclitic 19 ec, 236. 

πῶς 236; interrog. 481; w. gen. 
518 b. 


P 38 a, 39; doubled 48; initial 
265. 

ῥᾷδιος, compared 182, 6. 

ῥήτωρ, declined 102. 

-po, suff. 412, 428. 


Σ 38 a, 39; initial 54; disap- 
pears 55 a, b,c; from τ 46; 
lost except before » and τ, 
322 a; added to verb-stem 
400 b. 

-ca:e-, aorist suff. 280. 

-σαι, inf. suff. 285. 

-cai-co, becomes -σαιο 283. 

Σαλαμίς 103 b. 

σαυτοῦ, for σεαυτοῦ 203 a. 

σαφής, declined 151, 152; com- 
pared 177. 

oe, enclitic 19 a. 

-σε, place ending 228. 

σεαυτοῦ 205. 

σέθεν 196. 

-ceo:e-, fut. suff. 326. 

-σθα, for -s 263 ο. 

-σθαι, inf. ending 300 ἃ, 

-o1, place ending 228; suff. 406. 

-ovd, suff. 406. 

σιγῇ, dat. 526 b. 

«σις, suff. 406. 

σῖτος, σῖτα 144. 

σκιά, declined 66. 


GREEK INDEX 327 


-cxo:e-, tense suff. 260. -r, dropt 119. 
-co:e- fut. suff. 278, 310. «τᾶ, suff. 405, 480 and Ὁ: 434 
co, enclitic 19 a. and b. 
-cov, -σαι 284. tav 386 b. 
σός, poss. pron. 204. τἀνδρός 36 b. 
cov, enclitic 19 a. «τατος, superl. ending 177. 
σοφός, declined 76; compared τάχα, ταχέως 231. 

vee ταχύς, declined 158; compared 
σπουδῇ, dat. 526 b. 181. 
oo =7T 46. re, enclitic 19 6. 
στάδιον 144. τέθναμεν etc., root perf. 370 (4). 
στᾶς, declined 162 Ὁ. τεθνεώς 173. 
-στί, adv. ending 231. τέθνηκα, as pres. 456 b. 
στοχάζομαι, Ww. gen. 510d. -τειρᾶ, suff. 405. 
ov, pers. pron. 194. τεκμήριον, ACC. O39. 
συμβουλεύω, meaning of mid. τελευτῶν 583 a. 

500 b. -réos, verb. adjs. in 411. 
σύν, in comp. 52; w. dat. 598. | répas 119 
-ovva, suff. 429 and c. τέρην 157 Ὁ. 
συνθοῖτο, σύνθοιτο 377. -τερος comp. ending 177. 
σῦς, declined 182. τέρπομαι, W. gen. 010 e. 
ode, enclitic 19 f; poet. 196. | τέσσαρες 187, 188. 
σφέτερος 204 and a. τῇ: τῇδε, ταύτῃ 236. 
σφι, enclitic 19 f. τῇ ἀληθείᾳ, dat. 526 b. 
σφιν, 196. τηλίκος, poet. 211 a, 227. 
σφισι, enclitic 19 f. σφίσι 197. | τηλικόσδε, 211, 227. 
σφῶν, for ἑαυτῶν 203. τηλικοῦτος, 212, 227. 
σχολαῖος, compared 178. τηνικάδε, τηνικαῦτα 236. 


Σωκράτης, declined 127 ; accent | -rnp, suff. 405. 
128 a, 153 a; orig. adj. 154. | -τηριο, place suff. 432 Ὁ. 


σῶμα, declined 118. -rns, suff. 405. 

σῶος, σῶς, declined 96. -rnt, suff. 429 a. 

σώφρων, compared 179. «τι, pers. end. for -θι Pak 
«τι, suff. 406. 


T 38 a-c, 39,44 c; before «46; | -τιδ, suff. 430 and b; 434 and b. 
changed to o 46. τιθείς 165. 


928 


τίθηται, τίθοιτο, τιθοῖτο 377. 

-τικο, suff. 413 6. | 

tipaw 3133 Tipawy, τιμῶν 168 a. 

τιμή, declined 70. 

Tipo, W. gen. 514 a. 

τιμωρῶ, W. dat. 520 a. 

Tipuvs, 40 a. 

τις, enclitic 19 b; indef. 217, 
219. | 

τίς, accent 15 a; interrog. 217, 
481; declined 219; 22%. 

-τις, suff. 406. 

-ro:e-, tense suff. 258. 

τοι, enclitic 19 e; in crasis 36 b; 
particle 671 e, 673 b. 

τοῖος, τοιόσδε 211 and a, 227. 

τοιοῦτος 212, 227. 

τοῖσιδε, ταῖσιδε 209 a. 

τὸ λεγόμενον, appos. 539. 

TO μέγιστον, appos. 539. 

τὸν δέ and infin. 549 c. 

-top, suff. 405. 

-to-s, verb. adj. 411. 

τόσος 211 a, 227, 

τοσόσδε 211, 227. 

τοσοῦτος 212, 227. 

τότε 236, 481. 

tore 240 d. 

-τρᾶ, suff. 408 a. 

τρεῖς 187, 188. 

-τριᾶ, suff. 405. 

-τριδ, -T10, Suff. 405. 

τριήρης 154. 

τρίς 232. 

-τρις, -τις, suff. 405. 

tpitos 188. 


GREEK GRAMMAR 


τρίχα, τριχῇ 233. 

-τρο, -τρον, suff. 408. 
Τρώς 101 a. 

τυγχάνω, W. part. 585 a. 
«τωρ, suff. 405. 


Y, quantity 4; pronun., etc. 27; 
not elided 33 b. 

v, name of letter 1 b. 

-v, suff. 413 a. 

ὕδωρ 120. 

ut, diphthong 5. 

vids declined 142, 9. 

piv, poet. 196. 

-vvo:e-, pres. suff. 261 d. 

ὕπατος 184. 

ὑπέρτερος 183. 

ὑπήκοος, W. gen. 516 a. 

ὑπισχνοῦμαι, W. dat. 520 a. 

ὑπό, W. acc., gen., and dat. 
598. 

ὑποπτεύω, augm. 268 Ὁ. 

-us, -eva, -v, suff. 413 a. 

ὕστερος 183. 


® 7, 38, 39, 42, 44 ἃ. 

φαίνομαι 585 a. 

φαίνω, meaning of mid. 500 a. 

φάλαγξ, declined 109. 

det, name of letter 1 Ὁ. 

φείδομαι, W. gen. 511 c. 

φέρων 583 a. 

φημι, enclitic 19 d; inflection 
382; w. infin. 658. 

φθάνω, ν΄. acc. 530 a; w. partic. 
585 a. 


GREEK INDEX 


φθονῶ, w. dat. 520 a. 

_ φιλέων, φιλῶν 168 Ὁ. 

φίλος, compared 178. 

φοῖνιξ 111 ἃ. 

φυγάς 145. 

φυλάττομαι, Meaning of mid. 
500 b; w. acc. 530 a. 

φύλαξ declined 109. 

φῶς 120 and a. 


X 7%, 38, 39, 42, 44 b. 

χαίρων 583 a. 

χαμαί, χαμᾶθεν, χαμᾶζε 228. 

χαρίεις, declined 163, 164 a; 
179-b. 

χάριν, acc. 539. 

᾿ χάρις, declined 114. 

xe, name of letter 1 Ὁ. 

χείρ, declined 142, 10. 

χείρων, compared 182, 2. 

x7 36 ἃ. 

xoi 36 ἃ. 

χράομαι 317 a, 320. 

χρή 390. 

χρῆν, impf. 460. 

χρόνος, gen. 515. 

χρώς, χροός 143, 5. 

χρύσεος, χρυσοῦς, declined 87, 
90. 

χρώμενος 583 a. 


929 


Ψ 38 ἃ, 6, 39. 
ψαύω, w. gen. 510 b, d. 
wet, name of letter 1 b. 


Q, quantity 4. 

-w, ady. ending 231, 235. 

ὦ, name of letter 1 b. 

ὦ, interjection 61 a. 

ὧδε, οὕτως 236. 

-odes, neuter forms in 153 a. 

-ὦδης, from -οείδης 44}. 

-w:n-, mode suff. 269, 305. 

wt, ῳ, diphthong 5. 

-wv, place suff. 432 c. 

-ws, adverbs in 229. 

os, proclitic 17 d; w. infin. 
566 a and b; w. acc. absol. 
591 a; w. partic. 593 c, 594; 
ὡς Clauses 632-636, 659 and Ὁ. 

ὥς, ὡς 236, 239. | 

ὥσπερ, W. acc. absol. 591 a; 
just as, even as 593 d; 
strengthened ὡς 633 a, 637; 
ὥσπερ av εἰ 656 b. 

ὥστε, W. infin. 566; w. fut. 
infin. 578 Ὁ; ὥστε clauses 
639. 

-orns, suff. 434 Ὁ. 

wv, diphthong 5. 

ὥφελον 470 b. 


ENGLISH INDEX 


Accent, general rules 9-16; in 
contraction 30; in crasis 37; 
in elision 34; of nouns 63, 
68, 81, 84, 93 Ὁ and c, 131 a, 
133 a; of monosyll. cons. 
stems 101; recessive in cer- 
tain vocatives 72 d, 104, 105, 
128 a, 153 a; of adjs., fem. 
plu. 77 b; of contract adjs. 
89 bs; recessive in certain 
adjs. 148, 150, 153; of verbs 
268 a, 296, 300 d, 349 and 
a, 362 (3), 379 (4), 384 d; 
of verbal nouns 402 a; of 
compounds 439 a. 

Accusative neuter as adv. 230, 
234. 

Action, 
406. 

Adscript c 5 b. 

Agent, suffixes denoting 405; 
expressed by gen. 509 d; by 
dat. 524 b, 596. 

Aiolic dialect p. 2. 

Aischylos p. 2. 

Aorist 247; system (sigmatic) 
279; passive 303; liquid 323, 
327; form. vowel or thematic 
347, 348; in-a 351; root 366, 

300 


suffixes denoting 


379; in -xa 371; indicative 
462, 468; in a wish 470 a; 
passive 501. See Tenses. 

Apostrophe 32. 

Appositive 502; to a sentence 
504. 

Aristophanes p. 2. 

Aristotle p. 2. 

Article 61. 

Asyndeton 600 a. 

Attic dialect p. 2; Attic redu- 
plication 291 ὁ. 

Attraction, of rel. pron. 613 b; 
of antecedent 613¢; of mode 
642 d. 

Attributive position 552 a. 

Augment 264, 265-268 ; 
plupf. 293. 


of 


Breathings 6. 
Byzantine, empire and dialect 


p- 3. 


Cases 59. 

Chiasmus 682 a. 

Christian Fathers p. 3. 
Circumstantial participle 583. 
Common dialect p. 3. 
Composition 397. 


ENGLISH INDEX 


Compounds, analysis of 435; 
syllabication of 8. 

Conditional expressions 645. 

Conjunctions, coédrdinating 

- 602; subordinating, see Ta- 
ble of Contents. 

Consonants, classified 38, 39; 
sound changes of 38-56; 
final 40. 

Contraction, general rules 29; 
accent in 30; in adjectives 
89 a. 

Correlative pronouns, table 
227; adverbs, table 236. 

Crasis 31, 35, 36; accent in 37. 


Defective verbs, supplement- 
ing one another 391.. 

Demosthenes p. 2. 

Denominatives 399. 

Dependent compounds 446 a. 

Deponent verbs 394, 501; perf. 
of 396. 

Derivation 397. 

Descent, nouns denoting 433. 

Descriptive compounds 446 b. 

Determinative compounds 445 
a, 446. 

Dialects of Greek p. 2. 

Digraph and diphthong εἰ and 
ov 27 a. 

Diminutives 431. 

Diphthongs 5. 

Direct middle 500 a. 

Disappearance of close vowels 
27. 


991 


Doric dialect p. 2. 

Doric forms retaining ἃ 69 Ὁ, 
126. 

Double augment 267 a, 268 d. 

Double negatives 487. 

Dubitative subjv. 471. 


Eastern Roman Empire p. 3. 
Elision 31-33 ; accent in 34. 
Empire of Alexander p. 3. 
Enclitics 16, 19-21. 
Euripides p. 2. 
Exclamations 491 b, 509 ο. 


Formative-vowel aorist 347, 
348. 

Future, of vowel verbs 2777, 
278 ; liquid 323, 324; Doric 
3826; in -6 346 a; mid. with 
act. meaning 392; mid. with 
pass. meaning 393; passive 
310. See Tenses. 


Genders 58; diff. in sing. and 
plu. 144. 

Genitive absolute 589, 590. 

Gentile nouns 434. 

Gnomic aorist 465. 

Greek language, dialects and 
periods pp. 1-3. 


Headings and titles 491 c. 
Hellenistic dialect p. 3. 
Herodotos p. 2. 

Hiatus 31. 

Historical tenses 246. 


332 


Homer p. 2. 

Hopeless wish 470 a. 

Hortative subjunctive 472. 

Hypothetical indic. 461 ο, 467 
c, 468 b; optative 479-482. 


Imperative mode 245; endings 
271; uses of 484, 485; tenses 
of 484. 

Imperfect 264, 459-461, 470 a. 

Impersonal verbs 493 a, 520 b. 

Inceptive aorist 464. 

Inceptive class 260. 

Indicative mode 245, 281; pers. 
endings 263; in simple sen- 
tences 452-470, 488, 489 b; 
in subordinate clauses 617, 
618, 620, 622, 624, 627-635, 
636 c, 638 a, b, d, e, 639, 641, 
642 c, 644 a, 647-649, 655. 

Indirect middle 500 b and d. 

Indirect quotation 624 a, 657- 
664. 

Infinitive, endings 2733 uses 
245, 492, 562-579, 658. 

Ingressive aorist 464. 

Interchange of open vowels 
25, 26; of long and short 
vowels 28. 

Interjections 491 a. 

Ionic dialect p. 2. 


Liquids, sound changes in 48- 
53. 

Liquid verbs 248. 

Lucian p. 3. 


GREEK GRAMMAR 


Middle, direct 500 a; indirect 
500 Ὁ and d;_ participles, 
declined 276. 

Modern Greek p. 3. 

Modes 242. 

Mode-suffix, of subjv. 269; of 
opt. 270. 

Movable consonant 31. 

Mutes, sound changes in 42- 
4}. 


Nasal class 261, 356. 

Nasals, pronunciation 38 d. 

Negatives, double 487. 

New Testament p. 3. 

Nom. for voc. 62 b, 103 ο. 

Number, adverbs of 232; 
nouns of 192. 


Optative mode 245, 476-483, 
485; in subord. clauses, 611 
c, 616 b, 618 b, 620, 624 b, 
627, 629-631, 636 Ὁ, 638 ο, 
642 b, 644 c, 651, 659 a. 


Participle 245; declension of 
162 b, 164 b, 166, 168-173, 
276; compared 180; end- 
ings 275; syntax 580-595. 

Passive voice 244; fut. perf. 
pass. 3015 @y-pass. 302-310; 
n-pass. 334-337 ; pass. depo- 
nents 394, 395; use 499, 501. 

Patronymics 433. 

Perfect, xa-perf. 287-297, 342; 
a-perf. 332, 333, 342 Ὁ; root 


ENGLISH INDEX 


perf. 370; mid. 298-301, 338, 
339; of some deponents 
396; rendered by pres. 456 
b and c. 

Periods of Greek language p. 
2 f. 

Personal endings, indic. 263; 
impy. 271. 

Pindar p. 2. 

Place, endings denoting 228. 

Plato p. 2. 

Pluperfect 469, 649. 

Plutarch p. 3. 

Polybios p. 3. 

Possessive compounds 445 b, 
447. 

Possessive pronouns 204. 

Predicate nouns 502. 

Predicate position 552 c. 

Prepositional - phrase 
pounds 445 c, 448. 

Prepositions 437, 440 a, 447 
b. 

Present system, classes in 256- 
262, 356, 357. See Tenses. 

Primary tenses 246. 

Principal parts of verb 311. 

Proclitics 16-18. 

Prohibition 485. 

Prohibitive subjunctive 473. 

Pronunciation 1-7, 38. 

Punctuation 22. 


com- 


998 
Quality, nouns of 429. 
Quantity of vowels 4. 
Questions 488. 


Reciprocal pronoun 202. 


.Reduplication, pres. 257 a; 


perf. 289-291. 
Reflexive pronouns 197, 200, 
203. : 
Relative words as indir. 
terrog. 223, 621. 
Result, suffixes denoting 407. 
Roman Empire p. 3. 


in- 


Sappho p. 2. 

Secondary tenses 246. 

Sociative 525. 

Sophokles p. 2. 

Speech-tune 9 a. 

Stem of noun or adj. 60. 

Subjective middle 500 c and d. 

Subjunctive 245, 269; tenses 
of 4755; w. od μή 489 a; in 
simple sent. 471-475; in 
subord. clauses 611 b, 616 a, 
618 a, 620, 627-631, 636 a, 
638 c, 642 a, 644 b, 650, 
652. 

Suffix in derivation, meaning 
402. 

Syllables 8. 


Purpose, expressions of 565 | Tenses 242, 247; of ἵστημι 363 ; 


a, 576, 615, 619, 631 Ὁ, 
634, 636, 638 a, c, ἃ, 640, 
642, 


of indic. 453-470; of subjyv. 
475; of opt. 483; of impv. 
484; of infin, 563; of par- 


994 GREEK GRAMMAR 


tic. 581; in subord. clauses| another 391; impers. 493 a; 


607. semi-impers. 520 b; omitted 
Theokritos p. 2. 493 b; depon. 394, 396, 501. 
Thukydides p. 2. Verb-stems 248, in compounds 
Titles and headings 491 c. 442; from nouns 415. 
Tmesis 437 a. Voices 242, 244, 499, 501. 


Vowels, open or close 24; 
Verbal nouns and adjs. 399,| lengthening of 28 b., 
402-414. 
Verbals in -ros and -réos 352-| Wish, expressions of 470 a, 
304, 411, 596. 476-478. 
Verbs, accent, see Accent; de- 
fective supplementing one | Xenophon p. 2. 


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A New Series of Latin and Greek Texts for 
Secondary Schools, under the editorial charge of 


John Henry Wright, A. M., LL.D., Harvard University 
Bernadotte Perrin, Ph.D., LL.D., Yale University 
Andrew Fleming West, Ph.D., LL.D., Drinceton University 


These names guarantee the highest standard of scholarship and 
pedagogic fitness. 

The whole series throughout is based on the lines laid down in the 
Report of the Committee of Twelve of the American Philological Asso- 
ciation to the National Educational Association. 

These lines are now universally accepted as defining the ideal clas- 
sical course for secondary schools. The Twentieth Century Classical 
Texts satisfy at every point this universal requirement. 

The methods of teaching Latin and Greek as revised and now 
adopted by American educators call for a less pedantic, more human- 
istic style, dominantly literary in spirit, giving a clear, forceful impres- 
sion of ancient life and thought. The modern secondary text-book is 
not merely grammatical, but also historical; fitted to arouse living 
enthusiasm for the great masterpieces of ancient thought and for their 
exquisite literary dress. 

All this, recently focused in the action of the National Educational 
Association, is now embodied for the first time in this Series, edited by 
representative scholars of the universities that have had most to do 
with classical culture in America. 

The general editors and their colleagues are all practical teachers, 
originators, and leaders in the courses now pursued in our secondary: 
school system. 


Hence, the Twentieth Century Classical Series offers the 
simplest, most practical, and up-to-date Latin and Greek 
books ever prepared for American schools. 


eee rer LE TON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK. 


TWENTIETH CENTURY TEXT-BOOKS. 


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GREEK TEXTS. 


Selections from Homer’s Iliad. 


Edited, with an Introduction, Notes, and Vocabu- 
lary, by ALLEN R. BENNER, A. B., Professor of Greek, 
Phillips Academy, Andover, Mass. $1.60. 


This edition of selections from the Iliad contains 
about five thousand lines. It includes Books I, II (ex- 
cept the catalogue of the ships), and III, which are com- 
monly prescribed for college entrance. In addition, it 
embraces the notable portions of the poem that concern 
Achilles, Patroclus, and Hector. Books IX, XVIII, and 
XXII appear entire, with the larger part of Books VI and 
XVI, and short selections from V, XV, XIX, and XXIV. 


A novel feature of this edition is the definition in 


foot-notes of very unusual words—chiefly such as are 
found only once in Homer—on the pages where they 
occur. 

Grammatical and literary notes are appended. ‘Those 
on the earlier books are chiefly grammatical and interpre- 
tative, and contain abundant references to the brief 
Homeric Grammar which is a part of this edition. 

In the accompanying Vocabulary the more obvious 
cognate words in Latin and English are always shown 1 in 
so far as they are useful. 

The book is beautifully illustrated, particularly in the 
Introduction. This deals with the principal theories, 
based on the most recent archeological evidence, of 
Homeric dress and armor. 

The book provides material for one year’s work in 
school, including practice in sight reading. 


D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, 
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BOSTON COLLEGE LIBRARY 


UNIVERSITY HEIGHTS © 
CHESTNUT HILL, MASS. 


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Two cents a day is charged for each book 
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The borrower is responsible for books drawn 
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